NEW LECTURES
2/11/07
Vision and Eye anatomy
I. Perception
A. Distinguish between perception
and sensation
1.
Sensation: processing incoming messages
a. Receiving them
b. Getting the message to the correct brain location
c. No interpretation
2.
Perception
a. Interpreting the incoming messages
b. Determining who, what, when where why
B. Light
1. Light =
electromagnetic energy
2. Composed
of photons
3. Those
photons travel in waves
4. Best
analogy: droplets of water in the ocean
5. Visual
light spectrum: part of electromagnetic energy that an animal’s eye perceives
C. Psychological vs. the physical
1.
Wavelength of light = color
2. Density
of light = saturation of color
3. White =
all wavelengths together
4. Black =
absence of light (dark)
II. Eye
A. Parts of the eye
1. Cornea:
a. Light passes through here first
b. Clear
c. Should be smooth, if not creates astigmatism
2. Aqueous
humor: right behind the cornea
a. Jelly like fluid that helps the cornea keep its shape
b. Garbage system for the cornea
3. Iris and
pupil
a. Iris is a colored muscle (striated muscle)
b. Controls the opening into the eye- pupil
4. Lens
a. Oblong fingernail like bulb
b. More oblong for far away vision
c. More rounded for near vision
d. “cloudy lenses” = cataracts
e. Lens changes shape via ciliary muscles
5. Vitreous
humor
a. Jelly like substance in middle of eye
b. Helps the eyeball keep its shape
B. Retina
1. Skin
like layer on the back of the eye
2. Contain
the actual vision receptors
a. Rods: rod-like
b. Cones: cone-like
3. Rods
process: light/dark or black/white
4. Cones
process: color
5. Rods and
cones are concentrated in or near the fovea (indentation in the retina)
6. Optic
disk or blind spot
a. Where the optic nerve exists the eyeball
b. No rods or cones over it
C. Eye to brain
1. Retina:
a. Rods/cones to
b. Bipolar cells
c. To ganglion cells (nerve)
2. Optic
nerve to optic chiasm
3. Optic
tracts or nerve go to the lateral geniculate nuclei (midbrain)
4. Projects
back to the vision center: occipital lobe
a. Multiple vision areas
b. Specialized for color, form, distance, combining it all together
D. Vision problems with the eyeball
itself
1. Myopia:
nearsightedness
a. Only see near objects clearly
b. Lens too curved
c. Eyeball is too long
d. Light is focusing ahead of the retina
e. Concave lens on the front of the eye
2.
Hypermetropia: farsightedness
a. Only see far objects clearly
b. Lens too flat
c. Eye is too short
d. Light is focusing beyond the retina
e. Convex lens
3.
Astigmatism: waffle iron cornea
4.
Strabismus:
a. Eyes are crossed or wall-eyed
b. One or both eyes
c. Caused by weak muscles
d. Exercise the weak eye muscle
e. Critical that this is fixed by age 6 or at the very latest, and by 3
or 4 preferably
f. Death of the optic tract for the bad eye
III. Color vision
A. Two theories
1.
Trichromatic theory
a. Young (1880) and von Hemmholtz (1950’s)
b. Three kinds of cones
i. Red
ii. Green
iii. Blue
iv. By mixing combinations of these cones, we can see any color
c. But: problem- after image problem
2. Opponent
process theory
a. Ewald Hering (1850) and Hurvich and Jameson (1957
b. We have a different way of seeing color in the brain
c. Split the three incoming signals from cones plus rods into three
distinct opponent systems
i. Black-white (rods)
ii. Red-green
iii. Blue-yellow
d. Color blind: brain issue, not eye issue in most cases
i. If you lack rods/cones = blind
ii. If you lack cones = completely color blind
iii. Red/green or blue/yellow color blind or color weak
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2/13/07 Gestalt
Principles
Gestalt slides
I. Gestalt Psychology
A. Sensation and perception
1. Making
meaning of raw sensations
2.
Phenomonologists
a. Studied phenomenon
b. Found that individuals have highly individualized experiences
c. Found tremendous overlap in how people saw the world
3.
Perceptual organization
a. How we organize our perceptions
b. Figure vs. ground
c. Must determine what is the important object
d. What makes up the background
B. Mantra becomes
1. The
whole is greater than the sum of its parts
2. Parts
may be important
3. But it
is HOW the parts are put together that make the figure
4. Three
blind men and the elephant
a. First guy: examined trunk- snake
b. Second guy: examined a leg- a tree
c. Third guy: examined the tail- rope
II. Gestalt rules or laws of perception
A. Gestalt = configuration
1.
Examining distinctive features of the figure
2.
Separating from background
B. Rules of organization
1.
Proximity: things that are close together belong together
2.
Similarity: similar objects belong together
a. Categorize
b. Organize
c. Sort
d. See this
clip of Sesame street for a great example!
http://youtube.com/watch?v=Ect-kgxBb4M&feature=related
3. Contrasts and edges
a. Show divisions between proximal or similar objects
b. Dividing line
c. Whydon’twewritelikethis
d. Closure: like things to come to a natural conclusion or end
4. Good
figure or pragnanz: simple and natural, not artificial shapes
5. Good
continuation: like
6. Common
fate: make the figure have gestalt organization if it isn’t there
III. Perceptual constancies
A. How you view an object is
relative to the objects surrounding it
1. It
depends on the context
2. Navy
blue or black?
B. Perceived movement
1. See or
“make” movement where there isn’t any
2. Flicker
fusion- allows us to see motion where there isn’t really any motion
3. Phi
phenomon: a light perceives to jump back and forth
C. Dynamic qualities of our
perception
1.
Interactions between auditory and visual
2. Don’t
like a disconnect between the two
a. Mouths and sound should go together
b. Disconnect between light and sound is cue for distance
3.
Perceptions develop into categories and then schemas (generalized category)
4. Ethnic
names
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2/15/07 Depth
Perception
Depth Perception
slides
I. Depth perception
A. Problem for depth perception is
translating two dimensional images into three dimensional images
1. Our
retina sends 2-D signals (width and height)
2. Make
this into 3-D by adding depth
3. Use cues
in the environment to make our brain “see” 3D
B. Two kinds of cues
1. One-eyed
cues: mono cues
2. Two eyed
cues or binocular cues
C. Monocular
cues
1.
Pictorial or picture cues
2. Clues in
the 2D image that tell us about depth
3. Involve
our Gestalt rules
4. Light
and shadow
5. Size of
the object:
a. Near objects look big
b. Far objects look small
c. Assumes size constancy
6.
interposition.
a. If one object occludes the other, that object is near and the other is
far
b. Near covers far
7.
Perspective gradients
a. Linear perspective
b. Texture perspective
c. Aerial perspective: where you are in comparison to the object (above
or below)
8. By 6
months babies can see these cues (probably much earlier)
a. Elevated visual cliff
b. By six months- babies show fear
c. At birth to six months: interest
d. Precocial animals (animals that basically can function as adults at
birth) show fear immediately
D. Binocular cues
1. Two eyed
cues
2. Two
kinds
a. Convergence
b. Binocular disparity
3. Convergence
a. Motor movement for your eyes
b. Inward movement of the eyes
c. Feedback from the ciliary muscles (on the lens)
d. Moving inwards: near
e. Moving outwards: far
f. Ciliary muscles- accommodation
4.
Binocular disparity
a. Two eyes see two different images
b. One eye that is your main or dominant eye
c. Dominant eye is the “image receiver”
d. The other eye is the measure of disparity and therefore depth
e. Very different- far
f. High degree of overlap- near
g. Development of hand eye coordination
5.
Demonstrates “use it or lose it”
6. Distinct
critical period for integrating the senses: age 3 to 4; damage by 6 or 7 and
complete loss by 9 or 10
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Audition slides
I. Audition or hearing
A. Audition process of sensing air
pressure changes
1. When you
hear a sound your ear is actually being massaged by sound waves
2. Detect
the massageaction potential to the brain
3. Air
pressure changes are more than just hearing
a. Hearing
b. Balance
c. Side to side detection (echolocation)
B. Loudness, pitch and timbre
1.
Loudness: decibels
2. Pitch:
frequency of the sound wave
3. Timbre:
many overlapping soundwaves
C. Critical loudness for humans:
1. Hear
beginning at about 10 dB
2. Hearing
loss begins at about 20 dB
3. Injury
to the ear occurs at 90dB or greater (70 dB for chronic noise)
D. Pitch
1.
Frequency of the sound wave
2. Hear
from about 20 Hertz to about 6,000 Hz (little kids 8,000; many adults only
4,000)
3. Pitch =
tone
a. 20 Hz sound is very low
b. 4000 Hz sound is very high
c. Perceived pitch: higher pitches are perceived as louder
E. Timbre
1.
Overtones on your voice or an instrument
2.
Individualized
II. Anatomy of the Ear
A. Parts:
1. Pinna:
outermost skin and cartilage part of the ear
2. Outer
canal
3. Middle
ear:
a. Ear drum or tympanic membrane
b. Three bones:
i. Malleus or hammer
ii. Incus or anvil
iii. Stapes or stirrup
c. Function is mechanical: pushing the sound back into the cochlea
4. Middle
ear problems
a. Bad eardrums from injection or injury
b. New ear drum; tympanoplasty
c. Three bones may calcify
i. Get a calcium buildup
ii. Don’t move anymore
iii. Titanium bones
iv. Otosclerosis
B. Inner ear
1. Oval
window: opening in the bone to the cochlea
2. Cochlea:
snail like indentation of the skull
a. Should have at least three turns, if not- Mondini defect
b. Three separate chambers
i. Vestibular membrane
ii. Basilar membrane
iii. Tectal membrane
3. How do
we hear?
a. Air pressure pushes down on the basilar membrane
b. Basilar membrane is lined with hair cells
c. Hair cells move back and forth
d. This motion produces action potentials to the auditory nerve and then
to the brain
4.
Vestibular:
a. Hair cells
b. Liquid in the ear
c. As the liquid moves back and forth with head movement, hair cells
wiggle- action potential- stimulates the vestibular nerve
C. How we hear: Theories
1. Place or
location theory
a. von Hemmholtz and then von Bekesy
b. you can detect different pitches because different hair cells in
different locations are stimulated
c. each spot on the basilar membrane is “tuned” to a different pitch
2. Frequency theory
a. The basilar membrane vibrates at different frequencies depending on
pitch
b. Slowly for low pitches
c. Fast for higher pitches
3. Volley
theory or the volley principle
a. Depending on the pitch, you get place, frequency, mixed vibrations of
hair cells
b. Place: 200-20,000 Hz
c. Frequency: 20-4000 Hz
d. Both: 200-4000 HZ (human speech range)
III. Hearing loss
A. Three basic kinds
1.
Conductive or mechanical loss: middle ear
2.
Sensorineural loss:
a. Cochlea
b. Auditory nerve
c. Mixed: both
B. Hear the different kinds of losses
1. Hearing
loss
a. Mild: 20-40 dB
b. Moderate: 40-60
c. Severe: 60-80
d. Below 80: deaf
2. Tinnitutus
a. Swooshing or humming or buzzing sound
b. Hair cells or nerve are always stimulated
C. How do we fix it?
1. Hearing
aids
2. Analog
hearing aids
a. Cheap: $200-$600 each
b. Make ALL sounds louder
3. Digital
hearing aids
a. Mini computer
b. Aid each frequency or pitch individually
c. Price: $750-2500 A PIECE
d. Hearing aids come in all different sizes and shapes
4. Cochlear
implant
a. Bypass the cochlea
b. Computer chip in: under skin above your ear
c. Run a wire into cochlea and attach to the auditory nerve
d. Wear a microprocessor on the outer part of your head
e. Hearing aid sends the sound to the microprocessor
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2/20/08 Learning,
Habituation and Classical Conditioning
Habituation and
Classical Conditioning slides
I. Learning
A. Definition
1. Rely
on a change in behavior
2.
Relatively permanent change
3. Rule
out maturational change
4.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to environmental
change and not maturational change
B. How to tell is you learned
1. Have
to have behavior
2.
Increasing rate or quality of the behavior as the organism learns
3.
Maximum amount of learning about anything- asymptote
4.
Change in the curve prior to asymptote = learning
5.
Behavior at asymptote is performance
6. Take
many behavior measures
C. Several KINDS of learning
1. It
is a continuum
2. All
related and there is no real clean break between kinds of learning
3.
Habituation
4.
Classical conditioning
5.
Operant conditioning
6.
Modeling or social learning
II. Two most basic kinds
A. Habituation
1.
Learning NOT to respond
2.
Learning to ignore the irrelevant
3.
Underlying assumption: animals optimize
4. At
birth babies know how to habituate
5.
Dishabituation: change in the situation and you pay attention again
6.
Makes an efficient organism
B. Classical conditioning
1.
DesCartes: reflex arc or spinal reflex
a. Found that this reflex could be conditioned
(learned)
b. Use to think that only reflexes were classically conditioned, but
this is not really true
2.
Pavlov
a. Russian physiologist- salivation
b. Found that the dogs could predict when events were going to
happen- “made slobber”
c. Called it classical conditioning
C. Design of classical
conditioning
1.
Pavlov’s study: bells and food
2. Pair
the bell with the presentation of the food
3. Dogs
naturally slobber to food
4. Soon
the dogs began to slobber to bell
5. Name
the parts of this sequence
a. Unconditioned or unlearned stimulus: US
i. Naturally occurs
ii. Not learned
b. Unconditioned response: UR
i. Naturally occurring response
ii. Unlearned
c. Conditioned stimulus: CS
i. Learned cue or stimulus
ii. Predictive of the US
d. Conditioned response: CR
i. Learned response to the CS
ii. Occurs to the CS
iii. May or may not look like the UR
D. Characteristics of classical
conditioning
1.
Learning curve: it takes many trials to reach asymptote
2.
Strength of the response or the rate of learning depends on how strong the
cue or CS is
3.
Extinction: if the CS no longer predicts the US, you stop responding
(habituation)
4.
Spontaneous recovery; situation similar to the learning situation can bring
an old response back!
5.
Relearning is faster
6.
Generalization: you make similar responses to similar CSs
7.
Discrimination: learn to make the CR to only very specific CSs
E. 4 procedures that demonstrate why predictiveness is
SO important
1.
Simultaneous conditioning: CS is presented at the SAME TIME as the US-not
much learning
2.
Delayed conditioning: CS goes off, the US immediately goes on: great
conditioning
3.
Trace conditioning: CS goes off, break, US goes on: depends on the time gap
for how well you learn it
4.
Backwards conditioning: US then the CS
F. The form of the CR may be
different than the UR
1.
Typically, they are similar but NOT identical
2.
Pavlov: US saliva had more digestive enzymes than the CS saliva
3.
Sometimes they can be OPPOSITE or compensatory
4. Drug
response and addiction/tolerance
a. US morphine -- UR feel less pain, colder, lower BP, decreased HR,
etc….
b. CS: syringe CR: feel more pain, hot, increased BP and increased
HR
c. Homeostasis: keep our body in balance, on an even keel
d. Step down reflex compensates for the drug effects
5. CS
is predictive of the drug
a. CS can be the syringe
b. Environmental setting
c. Time of day
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2/22/08 Classical
conditioning applications and Operant Conditioning
Habituation and
Classical Conditioning slides
Operant conditioning slides
I. Classical Conditioning application
A. Learned emotional responses
1.
Little Albert study
a. US: loud noise
b. UR: fear
c. CS: white rat
d. CR: scared of the rat
2. John
Watson showed that emotional responses can be learned, not just innate
(1921)
3.
Generalization: objects similar to white rats
4. Plan
was to show that what was learned could be unlearned-Albert moved away
5. Why
do we use cute little puppies in advertising?
B. Remove the emotional
responses
1.
Systematic desensitization
2.
Systematically desensitize you to the CS
3.
Afraid of heights:
a. Flooding: put you in a glass elevator hanging over the canyon
until you aren’t afraid anymore
b. Shape you;
i. Thoughts or pictures of heights (mild or weak
CS)
ii. Pair that with calmness and relaxation
iii. Increase the strength of the “bad” CS but pair it with
relaxation
C. Get rid of bad behaviors or
“bad associations”
1.
Smoking cessation, eating (over eating) problems and sexual problems
2. Like
to smoke: poison the cigarette- get sick when smoke; associate smoking with
sickness
a. Tends to be taste specific
b. Same with food: taint your favorite food
3.
Chemotherapy or other medical treatments: inadvertently create taste
aversion conditioning
4.
Sexual deviancy
a. Typically learned or conditioned
b. Accidentally: pair some bizarre stimulus or feeling with sexual
arousal or gratification
c. Fetishes
d. Break the pairing:
i. Penile seismometer
ii. Measures erections and delivers shock
e. Not very successful: about 90% of sexual predators will repeat
D. Advertising
1.
Industrial/organizational psychology
2. Pair
product with CS (picture, icon, song)----pair it with a “fun, or happy”
feeling
II. Operant conditioning
A. So far:
1.
Habituation: learn to ignore and not respond to irrelevant stimuli in your
environment
2.
Classical conditioining:
a. You respond to predictive cues
b. Why? Because they predict an upcoming event
c. Don’t have to respond- not contingent or causal
B. operant conditioning
1. The
organism must make a response in order for the consequence to occur
2.
Consequence is contingent on the response
C. Edward.L.
Thorndike: The Law of Effect
1. Cats
and a puzzle box
2. Put
cat in box and the cat had to do some trick to get out
3.
Speed of the response increased with trials
4. The
law of effects; when a response is followed by a satisfying state of
affairs, that response increases
D. B.F. Skinner:
revised the law of effect
1. 2
issues:
a. Define satisfying: noisy word, not well defined
b. Use the reinforcer: make the connection between the response and
the consequence STRONGER
c. Define increase: significant change in probability
2.
Define reinforcement: when a response is followed by a reinforce, that
response increases in probability
3.
Define punishment: when a response is followed by a punisher, that response
decreases in probability
E issue of positive and negative reinforcers and
punishers
1.
Reinforcer increases responding
2.
Punishers decrease responding
3.
Positive: + add something
4.
Negative: - take away something
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2/25/08 More
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning slides
Remember: Test next
Wed Mar 5th
I. Remember: so far we have learned
A. Three kinds of learning so
far
1.
Habituation: learning NOT to respond to irrelevant stimuli
2.
Classical conditioning: learning to respond to predictive stimuli (there is
no contingency between the response and the CS)- being prepared
3.
Operant conditioning: respond to get access or avoid access to consequence:
response is required
B. Four kinds of consequences
in OC
1.
Positive reinforcement: add something to increase responding
2.
Negative reinforcement: take away to increase responding
3.
Positive punishment: add something to decrease responding
4.
Negative punishment: take away something to decrease responding
II. Parameters or characterists of operant conditioning
A. Acquisition or learning
curve
1.
Asymptotic curve: rises and then levels off
2.
Maximum amount of learning
3.
Shaping of the response:
a. Teach the response
b. Teach pieces of the response: successive approximations
c. At this point: reinforce A LOT
B. Several factors affect how fast you learn
1. Size
of the reinforcer: moderate size
2.
Quality of the reinforce: moderate quality
3.
Delay between the response and the reinforce: immediate
C. Extinction in operant conditioning
1.
Shows a different graph function
2.
Increase in the response before the decrease: TRANSIENT INCREASE
3.
Extinction induced aggression
4.
Spontaneous recovery: the response will come back if the situation becomes
similar to the old situation
D. Generalization and discrimination
1.
Learn to make the response under many similar stimuli (generalization)
2.
Learn to make the response ONLY in specific situations (discrimination)
3. Use
SD’s or discriminative stimuli : S+ or S-
E. Schedules of reinforcement:
1.
Continuous reinforcement schedule or CRF: every response is reinforced
a. Satiation and habituation
b. Too much
c. Use this for shaping
2.
Partial reinforcement: PRF
a. Only some responses will be reinforced
b. Thins out reward and extends behavior
3. 4
basic schedules of PRF
a. Fixed ratio: each nth response is reinforced
i. FR5: every 5th
ii. Piecework
iii. Break and run pattern: work hard to get the reinforcer, then
take a break
b. Fixed interval: the first response after X amount of time is
reinforced
i. FI 60 sec: the first response AFTER 60 sec
ii. Scalloped responding
iii. Tests every 4 weeks
c. Variable ratio: on average, every nth response is reinforced
i. VR5: 1,9,5…….
ii. Slot machines
iii. Fast and steady responding
d. Variable Interval: VI
i. On average, the first response after x amount of time is
reinforced
ii. VI 60 sec: average out as 60 sec
iii. Pop quizzes
F. Superstition
1.
Sometimes the organism connect a response to the reinforce that is NOT the
contingent response
2.
Accidental conditioning
3.
“flap your wings and turn around 3 times after shutting down the interface,
it will work again”
4.
Superstition can be maintained accidentally if the real contingency is still
in effect
5. Wii
6.
Accidental behaviors can interfere with the real contingency or cause harm
7.
Obsessive compulsive behavior
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2/27/08 Biological
Boundaries of Learning and Conditioning
slides for Animal Learning!
I. Animals used in psychology across a variety of
different kinds of research:
A. Behavioral Neuroscience research
1.
Comparative research
2. Learning
research
3.
Applications to animal welfare
B. Today
let’s discuss three models and theories that have lead to dramatic changes in
human and animal behavior:
1. Garcia
effect or conditioned taste aversion
2. Learned
helplessness
3.
Preparedness learning or behavior systems model
II. Garcia Effect or Conditioned Taste Aversion
A. Several groups of rats were
classically conditioned:
1. Grp I:
Tasty Water--> Nausea
Good Conditioning
2. Grp II:
Bright Noisy Water-> Shock
Good conditioning
3. Grp III:
Tasty Water--> Shock
No conditioning
4. Grp IV:
Bright Noisy water--> Nausea
No conditioning
B. Why? A
“biological boundary” may explain this phenomenon:
1. Look at
the TYPE of stimuli that are being used:
2.
Categorize each as an internal or external event
a) Grp I: Tasty Water--> Nausea
Internal
Internal
b) Grp II: Bright Noisy Water-> Shock
External External
c) Grp III: Tasty Water--> Shock
Internal
External
d) Grp IV: Bright Noisy water--> Nausea
External
Internal
3. Can’t learn ACROSS modalities very well!
C. Important
Properties of Taste Aversion
1. single
trial learning
2. lasts
long time periods
3.
generalizes
4. species
and modality specific
D. Uses
1. Humans:
dietary restrictions and smoking cessation programs (but will switch brands and
tastes)
2. Can
develop CTA with Chemotherapy- must watch pairing good food with nausea
3. Most
important use: Wildlife Management:
a) Coyote management
b) Wolf management
c) Bear management
4.
Application: How can you keep your dog out of the garbage?
III. Learned helplessness: Marty Seligman
A. Initial research paradigm: Four
groups of dogs
Training I and II
result
Lasting effects
1. Grp I
Escapable/escapeable
run
None
2. Grp II
Inescapable/inescapable
not run
None
3. Grp III
Escapable/inescapable
not run
None
4. Grp III
Inescapable/escapable
not run
Severe
5. Remember, Seligman’s hypothesis was that NONE of the dogs would be
significantly harmed.
6. Key
Factor = inescapability
7. once
learned not to escape (learned to be helpless)= not change
B.
Characteristics of L.H.
1.
inescapability that produces phenomenon, not the shock itself
2. works
under variety of procedures, conditions
3. very
generalizeable, transferable
4. if take
far enough, can make it a contingency rule for the animal, rather than specific
contingency for specific situation(s)
C. Symptoms
of L.H.
1.
passivity
2. learned
laziness
3.
retardation of learning
4. somatic
effects
5.
reduction of helplessness with time
D. Clinical
expressions of learned helplessness
1. School
phobias
2. and math
anxiety
3. Abusive
4.
Relationships
5.
Depression
6. Cultural
learned helplessness
E. “Curing” or eliminating
learned helplessness
1. Unlearn
the rule
2. Reshape
or recondition
3. Must be
done in situation where organism cannot fail
4.
Difficult to do- animals can “not” respond
5. UPenn
program on relearning thoughts during test taking
IV. Behavioral Systems of Behavior: Biological
Preparedness
A. Are boundaries or systems
of behavior
1.
Behaviors are clustered into groups of relevant behaviors
2. These
may be biologically relevant
3. May be
hard wired in many animals
B. Several
“modes” of behavior
1. Feeding
mode
2. Sexual
mode
3.
Aggression mode
4.
Misbehaving Animals
C. Marion and
Keller Breland
1. Students
of B.F. Skinner
2. Went to
Hollywood to train animals for films and commercials
3. In
process of training, discovered consistent “misbehavior” of animals
D. Several
examples:
1. Miserly
raccoon
2. Piggy
Bank Pig
3. Dancing
Chicken
4. Baseball
playing Chicken
E. Why? Instinctive drift
1. Whenever
situation permitted, specifies specific behavior patterns intruded
2.
Instinctive behaviors competed with operantly conditioned behaviors
3. Not
random, but predictable
F. Species
specific
1. Related
to reward
2. acting
almost as a CR
3.
inteferes with contingency!
G. bottom
line: our instinct is to learn, predict and adapt to our environment!
1. we don’t
have a lot of “hard wired” behaviors
2. those
that are hard wired are altered and changed via learning to predict and control
events in our environment
3. our
biggest instinct is to learn!
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2/29/08 Applied
Behavior Analysis
I. Functional Analysis
A. Determining the function of the
behavior
1. Trying
to find what contingencies maintain the behavior
2. Can be
environmental
3. Can be
“internal” environmental effects
4. Must
“listen” or observe behavior to determine causes!
C. Reinforcer
Hierarchy: make sure the client is as independent as possible:
B. We learn when the contingency is in
effect and when it is not
1. SD versus S∆
2. SD: R-->Sr
-The signal tells the organism the contingency is in effect (the
reward/punisher will not be received)
3. S∆: R 0
-The signal tells the organism the contingency is not in effect (the
reward/punisher will not be received)
II. Determining Effective Reinforcement Procedures in
Applied Settings:
A. Criteria for a Reinforcer:
1. Must be effective
2. Must be
able to predict a priori the:
3.
direction of behavior change
4.
magnitude of reinforcement effect
5. Must be
highly flexible across different populations and settings
B. Traditional Models of
Reinforcement:
1. Rely on
transituational approaches to reinforcement
2. “Once a
reinforcer, always a reinforcer”
3. Produced
catalog of items, but not good efficacy or reliability
4. Do not
really allow a priori predictions
C. Alternative Viewpoint:
1. Think
of reinforcers as something you want
2.
Punishment as something you don’t want
3. Time out
is extinction from reward and too much “nothing”
D. Disequilibrium models:
1. Idea
that we are at a state of equilibrium
2. If we
don’t have enough we will work to get more
3. If we
have too much we will work to get less
4. How make
something reinforcing?
a. Take it away
b. Give the person less of it
c. Sell it!
d. Can be anything or any activity the person wants
E. Why not use negative
reinforcement?
1. Side
effects: don’t like the person delivering negative reinforcer
2. Uneven
and sporadic behavior
3. Strong
stimulus cues: only behave when “sD” is around:
when teacher not there, the kids go wild!
F. Punishment effects
1.
Traditional Definition: Any contingent event which results in a decrease in
operant responding
2. New
Definition: Punishment effects are Produced when schedule constraints produce a
state of of disequilibrium
a. Punishment as satiation:
b. Give the individual “Too much” of something contingent on a behavior
III. Punishment and Time-Out:
A. Guidelines for using positive
punishment
1. Behavior
must be dangerous to person or others
2. No
chance to interrupt and reinforce “good” behavior
3. Tried
other alternatives
B. Rules for Using Time-Out
1. 1 minute
per year of age
2. Must be
quiet to get the timer to start
3. Cannot
use for dangerous, disruptive or self-stimulatory behavior
4. Must
really be “time out” from other rewards
C. Negative Punishment
1. Response
cost: your response costs you something or some behavior
2. Two
parts:
a. Restitution: reinstatement of environment (clean up)
b. Positive practice: practice better response for situation
3. Can also
use satiation/habituation
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3/3/08 Modeling or
Social Learning Theory
Remember: Test on Wednesday! Chapters 3
and 5!
I. So far we have learned about
A. Several types of learning
1.
Habituation
2.
Classical conditioning
3. Operant
conditioning
B. Biological limitations on
learning
1.
Boundaries or rules that restrict learning
2. Our
“hard wiring” may make us learn in certain ways or attend to certain stimuli
3. Social
boundaries for learning
C. Third or fourth kind of
learning: Social learning
1. Modeling
2. Learning
vicariously or by observing someone else doing the behavior
II. Social learning theory
A. Social learning
1. Do not
have to have direct experience with the learning
2. Learn by
seeing another organism experience consequences
3. Attend
to social cues
B. Animals learn via social
learning
1. If one
horse learns to open a gate……all do it
2.
Primarily in mammals
3. Only
social organisms learn via modeling
C. Albert Bandura (Stanford Univ)
1. Uses
social learning to explain social, personal and developmental competencies
2. Add a
cognitive or thinking component to his model
3. Add some
new concepts:
a. Rewards: convey information
b. Incentive motivation: reinforcement
c. Vicarious learning: learning by watching
4.
Modeling: learning by watching an identified model
D. Four mechanisms for social
learning from a model
1.
Attentional processes:
a. Must attend to the model
b. Several factors that affect attention:
i. Learner:
1. Be awake
2. Be able to observe
3. Interest
ii. Model:
1. Distinctive to the observer
a. Sex
b. Age
c. Ability
2. Affective valence
a. Emotional tone you set for the observation
b. Complexity
2. Retentional processes
a. Remember all the steps the model did
b. Memory abilities
i. Familiarity
ii. Amount to be remembered
c. Ways of remembering
i. Verbal memory: words
ii. Imaginal or procedural memory: images or the behaviors
iii. How I practice can make a difference
iv. Little kids can’t do either kind of “remembering” very well
3. Motoric reproduction abilities
a. Must be physically able to do the response
b. Problem in young children
c. Self observe and give yourself feedback
4. Reinforcement processes
a. If you are not personally rewarded, you won’t keep doing the new
behavior
b. Reward is still necessary for the observer
c. May have to self reward or be rewarded vicariously
III. Why is this important?
A. Where
do many of our behaviors come from?
1.
Bobo doll studies: 1960’s
a. Bobo was a blow up clown with a weighted bottom- punching clown
b. Examined the behavior of preschoolers:
i. Originally, just use boys, later used girls
2. groups:
a. Group that watched a grad student beat Bobo
b. Watched a Disney nature flick
c. Test: kids got to play with Bobo
d. Found: kids who watched a model beat Bobo were MUCH more aggressive to
Bobo
B. do kids learn TV violence?
1. yes!
2. what
kinds of TV are worse?
a. cartoons: Bugs bunny/Road runner hour
b. nightly news:
c. news resulted in more violent behavior: Viet Nam clips
d. kids can tell real from fake, and they are more likely to imitate live
action than cartoon
C. sexual behaviors
1. most
children interviewed state they learned their sexual courtship behaviors from TV
2. Doepke
study: known abuse victims compared to “controls”
a. allowed to play with anatomically correct dolls
b. shown that dolls were correct
c. abused kids played explicitly sexual ways with the dolls
d. controls: enaged in “sex role” play too!
3. MTV and
music videos: treatment of women
D. Helping
behaviors:
1.
calling 911
2.
learn cpr, and rescue techniques
3.
be careful when kids play these games
E. therapy: social skills training
1.
practice social skills by watching and observing
2.
model does the correct behavior, learn it
3.
model does the behavior wrong- observer corrects it
4.
teaching new and appropriate responses
5.
peers are best models
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OLD LECTURES
9/17/07 Visual Anatomy
Visual
Anatomy
I. The nature of light
A. Light = electromagnetic
radiation
1. composed of photons
2. travel in waves
3. wavelengths make up “color”
psychologicially
4. photons give us the “saturation”
or richness of color
B. physical
measurement and a psychological measurement
1. wavelength of light = physical
2. psychological measure of “color”
3. visible spectrum = part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that humans can see
a.
“rainbow”
b. Put all
the visible spectrum light waves together = white
c.
Monochromatic light = 1 color
d.
Brightness = saturation
C. why do we
need to know this?
1. eye must
convert electromagnetic radiation from the visible spectrum into an action
potential that is sent to the brain
2. light
come into the eye (right amount)
3. shined
onto the retina which contains our photoreceptors (light receivers)
a. Chemical reaction
b. Turns off the receptors
c. Turning off will cause an action potential
d. Goes to the brain, and is processed
II. Parts of the eye
A. major parts
1. cornea
a. outside most part of the eye (you put your contacts onto this)
b. clear, smooth, rounded
c. astigmatism is wrinkle in the cornea- screws up focusing
2. aqueous humor:
a. pouch of watery liquid right behind the cornea
b. garbage waste system
3. Iris and pupil
a. Iris: colored muscle of your eye
i. Striated muscle
ii. Sphincter muscle
iii. Limit the amount of light coming into the eye
b. the pupil: hole into the back of the eye
4. lens
a. Transparent, smooth, flexible
b. Same material as your fingernail
c. Ciliary muscles: push and pull to change the shape of the lens
i. Flatten the lens for far away objects
ii. Round the lens for near objects
d. cloudy lens = cataract
5. vitreous humor
a. large chamber of the eye
b. contains fluid
c. gives the eyeball its shape
d. should be nice and round (not oval)
6. retina
a. lining along the back of the eyeball
b. layered
i. receptor cells
ii. nerve cells
c. two important kinds of receptor cells
i. rods: rod shaped
1. black and white or day/night vision
2. 120 million
ii. cones: cone shaped
1. color vision
2. 5 million
d. connect to the optic nerve:
i. blind spot
ii. no rods or cones in the spot where the optic nerve exits the eye
e. fovea: where most of the cones are in the retina
B. connection
to brain
1. leaves
the retina via ganglion cells
2. ganglion
cells make up the optic nerve
3. optic
nerve leaves the eye and splits into 2
a. one side goes to the left hemisphere
b. one side goes to the right hemisphere
c. split is called the optic Chiasm
4. optic nerve and optic chiasm to midbrain or lateral geniculate nuclei
(LGN)
a. arousal
b. Notice sudden movement
5. radiations from LGN to occipital lobe
a. Areas 17, 18 and 19 primarily
b. Code incoming information in layers
6. two kinds of pathways
a. ambient vision: what is it
b. Spatial vision: where is it
C. vision
problems
1.
astigmatism
2.
nearsighted: myopia
a. Lens is too round
b. Eyeball is too long
c. Fix it: CONCAVE lens
d. Lens minifies
3. farsighted: hypermetropia
a. lens is too flat
b. eyeball is too short
c. fix it: CONVEX lens
d. lens magnify
4. strabismus: misaligned eyes (one eye muscle is too weak or strong)
5. cortical
blindness: brain is “blind”
III. Color vision
A. Two theories of color vision
1.
Trichromatic theory: 3 colors
a. Young (1880), von Hemholtz (1950’s)
b. Three kinds of cones make all colors
i. Work in combination
ii. Mix to make individual color combinations
c. red, blue and green wavelengths = white light
d. if this is true: 3 kinds of cones! And there are!!!!!!
2. problem: opponent process problem
a. black ---- white
b. Green ----- red
c. Blue ----- yellow
3. brain processes 4 colors and black/white in PAIRS
a. black ---- white
b. Green ----- red
c. Blue ----- yellow
d. Neurons in the brain
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I. Rules for Perceiving the world
A. remember cells in brain
1. retina:
rods and cones
a. rods connect many rods to 1 bipolar or ganglion cell
b. cones connect 1 cone to 1 bipolar/ganglion cell
c. more precision: color vision
2. go to brain: up optical nerve tract, optic chiasm, to LGN, to
occipital cortex
3.
specialized cells in visual cortex
a. On/off cells
b. Center and a periphery of their “visual field”
4. many kinds of specialized vision cells:
a. lines and edges
b. Color
c. Shapes
d. Lighting and shading
B. Gestalt
psychologists
1. studied
sensation and perception in the late 1800’s through 1950’s
2. German
group although most immigrated to Chicago in about 1935-1950
3.
phenomenologists
a. studied phenomenon
b. studied how people perceived the world
c. Studied in the absence of physiology
C.
Gestaltists have a mantra
1. the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts
2. the
whole “visual image” or “sound” or “sensation” is more than just its parts- it’s
the perception into meaning
3. most important part of “meaning” or “structure” is determining figure
vs. ground
a. figure: what you should be looking at
b. ground is the “background”
II. Gestalt rules of organization
A. gestalt = configuration
1.
distinction between arbitrary fragments of the physical stimulus and the
meaningful fragments of the physical stimulus
2. most
important and first task is determining figure vs. ground
B. rules for
organizing our visual world
1.
proximity: things that are close to one another belong with one another
2.
similarity: things that share similar characteristics belong together:
categorize
3.
contrast: edges or spacing between groups to denote groupings
4. good
continuation:
a. serialization: ordering
b. number or sequence
c. Expectation in what comes next
5. closure: the sequence comes to a natural end
6. good
figure or pregnanz
a. we prefer simple symmetrical figures and sounds
b. we like simple patterns and shapes not odd patterns and shapes
7. common fate: we MAKE organization where there isn’t any
C. Perceptual
constancies
1. we like
our perceptions to “match”
2. our ears
should match our eyes
3. mouth
movement should go with sound
4. we
compare stimuli: how is one COMPARED or relative to another
5. colors:
Navy blue
a. navy blue changes depending on the color it is next to
b. absolute color doesn’t change
c. Relative color changes
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9/21/07 Depth
Perception
Reminder: first taking sides paper due 10/8
I. Depth perception
A. depth perception is
1. translation of 2-dimensional retinal image into the “perception” or meaning
of 3-dimensions
2. retina: width and height
3. real world: width and height and depth
B. why?
1. hand eye coordination
2. movement in the world
C. two kinds of depth perception:
1. one eyed depth perception: monocular depth perception
2. two eyed depth perception: binocular depth perception
II. Monocular cues
A. one eyed cues
1. only require one eye
2. not binocular or two-eyed vision
B. Three different categories of monocular cues
1. pictorial or picture cues
2. kinetic or motion cues
3. feedback: accommodation
C. accommodation
1. when you shift your visual attention from a near to a far object, lens in
your eye adjusts
2. near-very round to far-very flat
3. ciliary muscles push and pull the lens into shape
4. accommodation is the feedback from your muscle movement
D. pictorial cues
1. stationary cues: still (holding still) cues
2. use a 2-D cue to hint at 3-D
3. size:
a. Objects get smaller as they move farther away
b. Size constancy: even young babies know that objects stay the same size
4. interposition:
a. near objects occlude far objects
b. nearest object should be in front of the farther object
5. lighting and shadowing
a. the direction of the light tells us that there is depth
b. Why? Because the object casts a shadow
6. perspective
a. linear perspective: lines converge with distance
b. Texture perspective: the shape of the pattern changes with distance- the
pattern gets closer together
c. Perspective is innate: you are born with the ability to “see” or perceive
depth
d. Understanding of the meaning of depth is learned!
e. Precocial animals (animals that can walk and eat at birth) show immediate
fear of depth
7. aerial perspective
a. with height or distance, the horizon becomes blurry
b. Edges of the picture gets out of focus, the near object is in focus
c. Blurry = far away
E. kinetic cues
1. motion cues
2. objects move fast when near, move slowly when far
III. Binocular vision
A. two eyes
1. each visual image will overlap
2. left eye slightly overlaps with right eye
B. disparity between the two images tells us distance
1. lots of overlap if it is close
2. little overlap for far objects
3. convergence: eye muscles push or pull the eyes in or out and we use the
feeling to know distance
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audition overheads
hearing loss:
Normal hearing
mild conductive
moderate conductive
severe conductive
mild sensory
moderate sensory
severe sensory
I. Audition
A. Audition – hearing
1. hearing
is the process of sensing air pressure changes
2. many
kinds of air pressure
a. sounds
b. weather changes in barometric pressure
c. altitude changes
d. colds, flus, water in the ears, all produce pressure change
B. loudness
and intensity of the sound
1. measure
in decibels for loudness: dB
2.
frequency for pitch: Hz
3. timbre:
unique “voice” of the instrument
a. each instrument (including your voice) has overtone frequencies
b. main frequency
c. companion frequencies that give the uniqueness
C. how loud
is too loud?
1. typical
hearing range for speech is between 0 and 60 dB
2. anything
above 90 dB is painful
D. Anatomy of
the ear
1. pinna:
outside flap of the ear
2. external
ear canal: outer most canal of your ear
3. ear drum
or tympanic membrane
a. piece of living tissue
b. regenerate but can have scarring that will compromise audition
c. if there is too much pressure: retract or pull in
d. ventilation tubes through the ear drum to relieve pressure
4. ossicles: three bones
a. malleus or hammer (attaches to ear drum)
b. incus or anvil
c. stapes or stirrup attaches to oval window
d. movement of these bones adds air pressure
e. otosclerosis: bones calcify
5. oval window: opening in the skull to the cochlea
6. cochlea
a. snail like indentation in the skull
b. 3 separate chambers
i. Vestibular membrane
ii. Basilar membrane
iii. Tectal membrane
c. cochlea is for “hearing” itself
7. semicircular canals and
vestibular membrane
a. for static positioning
b. full of liquid
c. works like a level
d. balance (and thus coordination)
e. menierres disease
II. How do we hear?
A. function of the cochlea
1. air
pressure pushes down on the basilar membrane that lines the cochlea
2. basilar
membrane is covered in hair cells
3. hair
cells move back and forth due to the air flow
4. hair
cells are connected to ganglion and bipolar cells, which connect to the auditory
nerve
5. action
potentials
B. we hear in
two ways:
1. place or
location theory
a. von Hemmholtz
b. different hair cells in different locations on the basilar membrane
are stimulated depending on the pitch of the sound (frequency)
c. each pitch vibrates a different location
2. frequency theory
a. Weaver and Brey (1957)
b. Different pitches vibrate the basilar membrane at different rates
c. Each pitch produces a unique vibration rate
3. volley principle:
a. at some frequencies each theory is correct
b. place theory is correct for 200-20,000 Hz
c. frequency theory is correct for 20-4,000 Hz
d. overlap of BOTH at 200-4,000 Hz
e. range of human speech: 200-4000 Hz
III. Hearing loss
A. three basic kinds of hearing
loss
1.
conductive loss: middle ear is structurally problematic
2.
sensorineural loss: nerve loss or cochlea loss
3. mixed
loss: both
B. conductive
loss
1. occurs
when the sound waves are not efficiently conducted back through the cochlea
2. reduces
overall sound
3. causes:
a. structural damage
b. accidents
c. ear infections
d. problem with the ossicles
e. malformation of the skull bone
C.
sensorineural loss
1. occurs
when the cochlea or the nerve is damaged
2. cochlea
damaged: damage the hair cells- permanent
3. nerve is
damaged: auditory neuropathy
4. genetic
conditions are most common reason
5.
antibiotics and drugs used for preemies
D. degree of
loss
1. normal
range: 0 db to 20 db (in adults)
2. mild
loss is from 10-30/40 dB
3. moderate
loss: 40—60 db
4. severe
loss: 60-80 dB
5. profound
loss: 80 dB or greater (deaf)
E. hearing
aids
1. analog:
make everything louder
2. digital
hearing aids: increase the loudness of just certain frequencies
3. several
ways to wear them: behind the ear; in the ear
F. cochlear
implants
1. used for
sensory neural loss
2. replace
the cochlea
3. wire
stimulator in the cochlea
4. connect
to a transducer implanted under the skin
5.
microprocessor magnet on the head
6. hearing
aid behind the ear
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9/26/07 Learning:
Habituation and Classical Conditioning
Conditioning Slides
I. Learning
A. define learning
1. many
different “behaviors” involved
a. Take in info
b. Process the important stuff
c. Remember it
d. Apply it or use it: performance
2. definition: learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that
is not due to maturation but to experience
B. many kinds
of learning
1.
habituation
2.
classical conditioning
3. operant
conditioning
4. modeling
or social learning
5. these
are part of a continuum: no clear break between one kind of learning and another
I. Habituation
A. habituation is the most simple
of learning
1. all
organisms do it
2. learning
not to respond to a stimulus because that stimulus has lost meaning or carries
no information
3. learning
to ignore
B. learn to
habituation
1. learning
curve
2. curve is
asymptotic: it flattens out
3.
important for ignoring irrelevant stimuli
C. can
reverse this process
1. can
learn to respond to a habituated stimulus
2. stimulus
regains meaning
II. Classical conditioning
A. Reflex Arc
1. reflex
arc is the connection between a sensory neuron in the periphery and the spinal
cord
2. react to
stimulus and move away from the stimulus via the spinal cord arc, and not the
brain
3. feeling
about the stimulus is brain
B. Ivan
Pavlov
1. Russian
physiologist who studied the importance of saliva in digestion
2. used
dogs
a. Noticed that the dogs could predict when feeding time or research time
would happen
b. Noticed they “knew” different people in the lab
3. created an experiment:
a. paired stimulus (Bell) with another stimulus (food)
b. Bell predicts the food
c. What should happen with the presentation of the bell?.....dogs should
slobber
C. names to
each part of his experiment
1.
unconditioned stimulus: US
a. The stimulus you already react to (typically this is unlearned or
innate)
b. Unlearned or unconditioned
2. conditioned stimulus: CS
a. the stimulus you learn predicts the unconditioned stimulus
b. learned or conditioned
3. unconditioned response: UR
a. the response you make to the unconditioned stimulus
b. Typically unlearned or innate
4. conditioned response: CR
a. the response you make to the conditioned stimulus
b. Learned
D. parameters
or characteristics of classical conditioning
1. learning
curve: asymptotic curve
2.
extinction curve: if the CS stops predicting the US, the CR decreases or
extinguishes
3.
relearning: if the CS becomes predictive, you can relearn the CS-US relationship
and the CR comes back (faster)
4.
spontaneous recovery: sometimes an extinguished CR just occurs
5. generalization: the CR will occur to stimuli that are similar to the
CS
6. discrimination: we learn to only show the CR to particular CSs
7. the form of the CR is qualitatively different than the form of the UR
a. slobber for the US has MORE digestive enzymes than the slobber for the
CS
b. why? You don’t digest bells!
c. drugs: inverse or compensatory CR: it’s the opposite
i. morphine: decreases HR, BP, feel less pain, etc.
ii. sight of the morphine injection: increases HR, BP and feel more pain
E. four
procedures for CC
1. these
are important because they show that predictability of the CS-US relation is
critical
2. if it
don’t predict then no CR
3. four
procedures:
a. Simultaneous conditioning: CS and US are presented at the same time
b. Delayed conditioning: CS onsets/offsets and immediately the US onsets
(works best!)
c. Trace conditioning: CS onsets/offsets, delay, then the US: used to
test memory time-horizons
d. Backward conditioning: US is presented BEFORE the CS (only works for
taste aversion)
III. Uses for Classical conditioning
A. learn emotional responses from
CC
1. Little
Albert: study conducted by John Watson
a. Paired a white rat (CS) with a fear stimulus (US)
b. He associated the rat with “bad things” and was afraid of the rat
2. can learn “good” feelings: commercials: why do use cute puppies to
sell TP?
B. eliminate
these feelings
1.
systematic desensitization: uncondition the conditioning
a. Fear hierarchy (least fearful to most)
b. Teach relaxation
c. Pair relaxation with the stimuli from your hierarchy
2. sexual predators:
a. CS that predicts sexual arousal or gratification = children
b. Punishment: shock the individual when they become aroused by
inappropriate stimulus
3. Lamaze: classical conditioning
a. Learn to breathe and relax using a cue or CS
b. When in pain- look at CS and it predicts “relaxation”
4. taste aversion
5.
advertising is all classical conditioning based
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9/28/07 Operant
Conditioning
Taking sides paper is due OCTOBER 8th!!!!!!!!
Today at noon in Felmley 105 is a talk by David Walker on
addiction and the adolescent brain
operant overheads!
I. Operant or instrumental conditioning
A. the law of effect
1. Edward
L. Thorndike: Animal Intelligence 1911
2. puzzle
box and cats
a. Put the cat in the box
b. Different kinds of releases that the cat had to figure out
c. Cats learned to get out
d. Got out faster with each trial
3. Law of effect: when a response is followed by a satisfying state of
affairs, that response will occur again and become more frequent
B. B.F.
Skinner
1. read
Pavlov
2. wrote
his book in 1938: Behavior of Organisms
3. problems
with Thorndike’s version:
a. Defining how often “frequent” is: probability measures
b. Word “satisfying”: what is it?
c. Reinforcer: means to strengthen the connection between the response
and the consequence
4. he re-wrote the law of effect:
a. reinforcer: any consequence which increases the probability of the
response when made contingent upon that response
b. Punisher: any consequence which decreases the probability of the
response when made contingent upon the response
5. notice the relation between OC and CC:
a. CC: CS-US
b. OC: R-Consequence
6.
Continuum:
CS-US
S+-R-Consequence
a. big difference: CC NO response is required
b. OC: response IS required to get the consequence
C.
Consequence
1.
reinforcers and punishers
2. add
things (positive)
3. take
things away (negative)
4. combine
these into a 2 x 2 contingency square
5. see
contingency square!:
Reinforcement
Punishment
Positive
Positive
Reinforcement
(Positive) Punishment
Add
make bed-->10cent
hit sister->spanked
Stimulus
Negative
Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment
Remove
make bed-> Mom stops hit sister->lose TV
Stimulus
nagging
D. parameters
of reinforcement (punishment is the opposite)
1. we must
learn the response: asymptotic curve
2. delay of
reward weakens the connection between the R and the reinforcer- weaker
responding
3. size of
the reinforcer matters
a. Larger is better
b. Up to a point….satiation
4. quality of reward matters
a. better quality is better behavior
b. Faster satiation
5. extinction is different than in classical conditioning
a. transient increase in responding at the beginning of extinction
b. Extinction induced aggression
6. generalization and discrimination
a. generalization: make the response to situations that are similar to
the reward situation
b. Discrimination: make the response only in particular reward situations
II. Schedules of reinforcement
A. two basic kinds of schedules of
reward
1. schedule
tells when to reward
2.
continuous reinforcement schedules: every response is rewarded (problem:
satiation)
3. partial
reinforcement schedules: only reward some behaviors
B. four basic
kinds of partial reinforcement schedules
1. Fixed
ratio or FR schedule
a. Every nth response is reinforced
b. FR5: 5th R, 10th R, 15th R, etc.
c. Piece work or candy sales
d. Organisms tend to take a brief pause after getting a reward
2. Variable ratio or VR schedule:
a. On average, the nth response is reinforced
b. VR 5: 5th R, 1 R, 9th R, 2 R, 8th R, etc……
c. Slot machines use a VR schedule
d. Nice steady behavior; faster you respond the more you earn
3. Fixed Interval or FI schedule
a. The first response after T amount of time is rewarded
b. FI 60 sec; first response after 60 sec have passed is reinforced
c. Break and run pattern
4. Variable Interval schedule or VI
a. On average, the first response after T amount of time is rewarded
b. VI 60 sec: based on an average of 60 sec.
c. Pop quizzes
C.
superstition and shaping
1. to start
a new behavior: technique called shaping
a. This behavior must be physically capable of being performed by the
organism
b. Break up the behavior into it’s pieces or components
c. Chain together successive approximations
2. superstition:
a. the organism may pair the wrong behavior with the consequence
b. Keeps doing a behavior that has nothing to do with the reinforcer,
except accidentally
c. Baseball players
d. Wii players
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10/01/07 Applied
Behavior Analysis
Remember: Taking Sides paper is due No later than October
8th!
I. Applied Behavior Analysis
A. behavior analysts
1. use
operant conditioning primarily
2. some
classical conditioning and habituation
3. apply it
to real world situations
B. many
places ABA is used:
1.
institution: residential unit for individuals with Developmental disabilities or
mental illness
2. schools-
school psych people
3.
industry: safety people, HR, wellness
4. animal
training and zoos
5.
consultants
C. three
levels of certification
1.
bachelors level
2. masters
level
3.
doctorate level
D. what do
they do?
1.
functional analyses: determine the ABCs of the behavior
a. antecedants or precursors or behavior and events that come BEFORE
b. behavior
c. consequences
2. observations
3. come up
with a behavior remediation plan
a. eliminating “bad” or disruptive behavior
b. shape up and teach appropriate behavior
4. several possibilities for “why”
a. seeking reward
b. avoiding punishment
c. internal issue
II. What techniques can we use?
A. punishment
1. positive
punisher is applying an aversive stimulus contingent upon the response; response
decreases
2. must
remember to use a partial punishment schedule to wean off the punisher
3. remember
extinction can occur with punished behavior as well (in this case, the behavior
COMES BACK!)
4. ethics:
a. give a poor model for appropriate behavior
b. modeling violence
c. being angry when punishing
5. kinds of aversives
a. electric shock but NOT cattle prod
b. SIBIS: self injurious behavior interruption system
c. Sprays to the face
d. Startle
6. rules for using positive punishers
a. behavior must be SO dangerous there is no opportunity to disrupt it
b. positive rewards have not been effective (alone)
c. must have tried several interruption programs
7. major side effects
a. individual becomes angry at the deliverer of the aversive
b. increase violent behavior
c. again it sets a bad example
B. Negative
punishment
1. take
away a positive thing to decrease response
2. time out
from reward opportunities
a. time out is NOT seclusion!!!!!!
b. Time out is NOT reinforcement time for parents and staff
c. Typically use 1 minute per year of age up to about 10 minutes
d. Clock starts when the tantrum stops!
3. make sure it really is free from reward
a. not avoidance
b. don’t use for self stim behaviors
4. immediately reward a good behavior after time out
5. problems with negative reinforcement, especially nagging is that you
don’t like the deliverer of the “nagging” or the negative punisher
6. overcorrection:
a. two parts
b. restitution: make whatever you broke or hurt “better”- clean up
c. positive practice
C. Positive reinforcement
1. negative
reinforcement: don’t use it!
2. positive
reinforcement is best
a. greediness can develop
b. must get paid for everything!
c. Must be careful how much we reward
d. Must be careful to honestly reward
3. reinforcer hierarchy
a. lowest: food, shelter, warmth
b. tangibles or things
c. tokens or points
d. contingencies: if___ Then
e. feedback
f. competency: you reward yourself
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10/03/07
Biological Boundaries of Learning
I. “Straw man argument” = false argument used for
demonstration
A. Equipotentiality principle
1. was a
real model of learning in the 1950’s
2. old
school behaviorism
3. WRONG!
B. principle
says:
1. any CS
can be paired with any US
2. any
response can be controlled or “governed” by any reinforcer or punishment
3.
reinforcers and punishers are transituational: once a reinforcer or
punisher/always a reinforcer or punisher
4. biology
is irrelevant to learning
5. anything
can be learned, given sufficient time/trials
C. in order
to demonstrate that a “law” is wrong
1. need to
find some “exceptions”
2. need
evidence to demonstrate that the 1950’s version of learning is wrong
II. Evidence
A. Garcia’s experiments on Taste
Aversion
1. classic
1959 experiment
a. Tasty water vs. bright noisy water experiment from Tuesday lecture
b. Violated the law of equipotentiality
c. Showed that not ANY CS could be paired with any US
d. Sometimes you couldn’t learn CC
2. evidence that
a. biology can interrupt or prevent some learning
b. Some learning may be ‘hardwired’
3. important biological properties of taste aversion
a. general
b. Animals show it from birth or earlier
c. Tolerates a long delay, unlike other learning
d. One trial
e. Backward conditioning
f. Novel stimuli work best: old, familiar is less likely to develop taste
aversion
g. Species differences: changes with dominant modality for food
preference
B. Avoidance
learning: Species Specific Defense Reactions or SSDRs
1. Bob
Bolles: preparedness in avoidance learning
a. He wanted to know if there were basic “avoidance” behaviors
b. Did these vary by the type of stimulus, the situation, and the animal?
2. basic behavior sequence to avoidance:
a. freezing
b. Flight
c. Fight!!!
d. Prey animals show: tonic immobility- they go limb when squeezed or
restrained
3. found there are instinctual patterns to these behaviors
a. 1-way shuttle
b. 2-way shuttle
c. 2-way shuttle is almost impossible to learn
4. differences in animals
a. rats: jump forward, not backward
b. Pigeons: wing flap not peck
5. tells us there are different behaviors for reward (food) and shock or
danger behaviors
6. important for safety training in humans
a. first instinct is to: hide
b. run- often “away” from danger (or at least you think you are)
c. fight
7. to work:
learning must be “stronger” than the biological instinct
C.
Instinctive drift
1.
Skinner’s book: Behavior of Organisms
2. Breland
and Breland: students of Skinners: Misbehavior of Organisms 1961
3. animal
trainers: noticed some “problems” in their training
a. The Dancing chicken (rooster)
b. Bank commercials:
i. Piggy bank pig:
ii. Miserly raccoon:
c. baseball chicken
4. instinctive behaviors towards food interrupt operant response
a. instinct DRIFTS into the learning situation
b. Only way to get rid of it is to make the new learned behavior STRONGER
than the instinctive behavior
D. what does
this mean?
1. can’t
take the animal out of the behavior!
2. learning
is biology
3. what is
the strongest human instinct? LEARN
4. humans
(all animals) optimize!!! We get the most bang for the least buck- and we do
this by learning the best way
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If you missed this
movie and want to see it, come over to the lab. You can watch it there!
Test on Wednesday
I. Modeling
A. Albert Bandura: Social Learning
theory
1. model is
a description of social, personal and developmental competencies
2. show
that humans (and other animals) can learn indirectly
3. learn by
observing or watching
B. new
concepts of old terms
1. rewards
or reinforcers convey meaning about a situation
2. tell
what will happen when you do a particular behavior
3.
incentive motivation: motivation you get by watching some one else get rewarded
4.
vicarious learning: learning by watching or observing
C. most
organisms with a CNS can at least imitate
1.
imitation is an immediate re-enactment of the behavior
a. Infants do this from birth
b. Other animal infants do the same thing
2. animals can learn vicariously
a. insects
b. Primates and monkeys
c. Animals such as rats and cats and dogs
3. why would observational learning be adaptive?
a. More efficient
b. Increases likelihood of survival
II. Modeling mechanisms
A. modeling
1. subject
watches a model doing a novel behavior
2. test
with delay to see if the subject can perform the novel behavior
3. delay
shows modeling rather than imitation
B. four
mechanisms that must be in place to model a behavior
1.
attentional processes
a. Must pay attention or attend to the model
b. Several factors of the model that are important
i. Distinctive or high status model for the observer
ii. Age, sex and popularity is critical
c. factors for the observer
i. affective valence or mood
ii. Complexity of the behavior to the observer
iii. Prevalence of the behavior (how popular a behavior is it?)
iv. Functional value to the subject
2. retentional processes
a. you must remember the behavior
b. 2 types of remembering
i. Imaginal or remembering the behavior
ii. Verbal: saying the steps to the behavior
c. factors which can influence memory:
i. symbolic coding: how good are you at coding (language)
ii. cognitive organization and rehearsal
iii. motor rehearsal
3. motoric reproduction
a. must be physically able to reproduce the behaviors
b. physical capabilities
c. Availability of component responses
d. Self observe your own behavior and correct as needed
e. Accuracy of your own feedback
4. reinforcement
a. must get some kind of reward when YOU do the behavior
b. Initially do the behavior to get the same reward you saw the model get
(vicarious reinforcement)
c. If YOU are not rewarded, you won’t keep doing the behavior
III. Why is this important for humans?
A. BOBO doll studies by Bandura in
the early to mid 1960’s
1. Bobo was
brand new on the market, most kids hadn’t seen it yet
2.
preschool kids (at first, just boys, later both genders)
3. two
groups
a. Control group: nature movie
b. Experimental group saw a movie about a grad student beating Bobo and
using novel words
4. Test: time with Bobo
a. All the kids beat up Bobo
b. Kids in the experimental group modeled both the language and the
aggressive style of the grad student model
c. Conclusion: kids imitate what they see on a “movie”
5. examine the effects of TV
a. cartoons- found kids imitate and model cartoon character behavior
b. Followup studies: compared
i. Cartoon
ii. Live action pretend
iii. Evening news: violence in riots and Vietnam
c. kids imitated all three “styles”
i. which was worse?
ii. Which did the kids have more difficulty telling “real” from “TV”
6. what do we know about TV today:
a. cartoons are seen as “pretend”
b. Live action is less distinctive: Power Rangers
c. News has lasting consequences: 9/11/2001
B. only
behaviors to be modeled are violence? NO
1. helping
behavior
2.
treatment in children for fears
3. sex
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