NEW LECTURES
2/11/07
Vision and Eye anatomy
I. Perception
A. Distinguish between perception
and sensation
1.
Sensation: processing incoming messages
a. Receiving them
b. Getting the message to the correct brain location
c. No interpretation
2.
Perception
a. Interpreting the incoming messages
b. Determining who, what, when where why
B. Light
1. Light =
electromagnetic energy
2. Composed
of photons
3. Those
photons travel in waves
4. Best
analogy: droplets of water in the ocean
5. Visual
light spectrum: part of electromagnetic energy that an animal’s eye perceives
C. Psychological vs. the physical
1.
Wavelength of light = color
2. Density
of light = saturation of color
3. White =
all wavelengths together
4. Black =
absence of light (dark)
II. Eye
A. Parts of the eye
1. Cornea:
a. Light passes through here first
b. Clear
c. Should be smooth, if not creates astigmatism
2. Aqueous
humor: right behind the cornea
a. Jelly like fluid that helps the cornea keep its shape
b. Garbage system for the cornea
3. Iris and
pupil
a. Iris is a colored muscle (striated muscle)
b. Controls the opening into the eye- pupil
4. Lens
a. Oblong fingernail like bulb
b. More oblong for far away vision
c. More rounded for near vision
d. “cloudy lenses” = cataracts
e. Lens changes shape via ciliary muscles
5. Vitreous
humor
a. Jelly like substance in middle of eye
b. Helps the eyeball keep its shape
B. Retina
1. Skin
like layer on the back of the eye
2. Contain
the actual vision receptors
a. Rods: rod-like
b. Cones: cone-like
3. Rods
process: light/dark or black/white
4. Cones
process: color
5. Rods and
cones are concentrated in or near the fovea (indentation in the retina)
6. Optic
disk or blind spot
a. Where the optic nerve exists the eyeball
b. No rods or cones over it
C. Eye to brain
1. Retina:
a. Rods/cones to
b. Bipolar cells
c. To ganglion cells (nerve)
2. Optic
nerve to optic chiasm
3. Optic
tracts or nerve go to the lateral geniculate nuclei (midbrain)
4. Projects
back to the vision center: occipital lobe
a. Multiple vision areas
b. Specialized for color, form, distance, combining it all together
D. Vision problems with the eyeball
itself
1. Myopia:
nearsightedness
a. Only see near objects clearly
b. Lens too curved
c. Eyeball is too long
d. Light is focusing ahead of the retina
e. Concave lens on the front of the eye
2.
Hypermetropia: farsightedness
a. Only see far objects clearly
b. Lens too flat
c. Eye is too short
d. Light is focusing beyond the retina
e. Convex lens
3.
Astigmatism: waffle iron cornea
4.
Strabismus:
a. Eyes are crossed or wall-eyed
b. One or both eyes
c. Caused by weak muscles
d. Exercise the weak eye muscle
e. Critical that this is fixed by age 6 or at the very latest, and by 3
or 4 preferably
f. Death of the optic tract for the bad eye
III. Color vision
A. Two theories
1.
Trichromatic theory
a. Young (1880) and von Hemmholtz (1950’s)
b. Three kinds of cones
i. Red
ii. Green
iii. Blue
iv. By mixing combinations of these cones, we can see any color
c. But: problem- after image problem
2. Opponent
process theory
a. Ewald Hering (1850) and Hurvich and Jameson (1957
b. We have a different way of seeing color in the brain
c. Split the three incoming signals from cones plus rods into three
distinct opponent systems
i. Black-white (rods)
ii. Red-green
iii. Blue-yellow
d. Color blind: brain issue, not eye issue in most cases
i. If you lack rods/cones = blind
ii. If you lack cones = completely color blind
iii. Red/green or blue/yellow color blind or color weak
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2/13/07 Gestalt
Principles
Gestalt slides
I. Gestalt Psychology
A. Sensation and perception
1. Making
meaning of raw sensations
2.
Phenomonologists
a. Studied phenomenon
b. Found that individuals have highly individualized experiences
c. Found tremendous overlap in how people saw the world
3.
Perceptual organization
a. How we organize our perceptions
b. Figure vs. ground
c. Must determine what is the important object
d. What makes up the background
B. Mantra becomes
1. The
whole is greater than the sum of its parts
2. Parts
may be important
3. But it
is HOW the parts are put together that make the figure
4. Three
blind men and the elephant
a. First guy: examined trunk- snake
b. Second guy: examined a leg- a tree
c. Third guy: examined the tail- rope
II. Gestalt rules or laws of perception
A. Gestalt = configuration
1.
Examining distinctive features of the figure
2.
Separating from background
B. Rules of organization
1.
Proximity: things that are close together belong together
2.
Similarity: similar objects belong together
a. Categorize
b. Organize
c. Sort
d. See this
clip of Sesame street for a great example!
http://youtube.com/watch?v=Ect-kgxBb4M&feature=related
3. Contrasts and edges
a. Show divisions between proximal or similar objects
b. Dividing line
c. Whydon’twewritelikethis
d. Closure: like things to come to a natural conclusion or end
4. Good
figure or pragnanz: simple and natural, not artificial shapes
5. Good
continuation: like
6. Common
fate: make the figure have gestalt organization if it isn’t there
III. Perceptual constancies
A. How you view an object is
relative to the objects surrounding it
1. It
depends on the context
2. Navy
blue or black?
B. Perceived movement
1. See or
“make” movement where there isn’t any
2. Flicker
fusion- allows us to see motion where there isn’t really any motion
3. Phi
phenomon: a light perceives to jump back and forth
C. Dynamic qualities of our
perception
1.
Interactions between auditory and visual
2. Don’t
like a disconnect between the two
a. Mouths and sound should go together
b. Disconnect between light and sound is cue for distance
3.
Perceptions develop into categories and then schemas (generalized category)
4. Ethnic
names
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2/15/07 Depth
Perception
Depth Perception
slides
I. Depth perception
A. Problem for depth perception is
translating two dimensional images into three dimensional images
1. Our
retina sends 2-D signals (width and height)
2. Make
this into 3-D by adding depth
3. Use cues
in the environment to make our brain “see” 3D
B. Two kinds of cues
1. One-eyed
cues: mono cues
2. Two eyed
cues or binocular cues
C. Monocular
cues
1.
Pictorial or picture cues
2. Clues in
the 2D image that tell us about depth
3. Involve
our Gestalt rules
4. Light
and shadow
5. Size of
the object:
a. Near objects look big
b. Far objects look small
c. Assumes size constancy
6.
interposition.
a. If one object occludes the other, that object is near and the other is
far
b. Near covers far
7.
Perspective gradients
a. Linear perspective
b. Texture perspective
c. Aerial perspective: where you are in comparison to the object (above
or below)
8. By 6
months babies can see these cues (probably much earlier)
a. Elevated visual cliff
b. By six months- babies show fear
c. At birth to six months: interest
d. Precocial animals (animals that basically can function as adults at
birth) show fear immediately
D. Binocular cues
1. Two eyed
cues
2. Two
kinds
a. Convergence
b. Binocular disparity
3. Convergence
a. Motor movement for your eyes
b. Inward movement of the eyes
c. Feedback from the ciliary muscles (on the lens)
d. Moving inwards: near
e. Moving outwards: far
f. Ciliary muscles- accommodation
4.
Binocular disparity
a. Two eyes see two different images
b. One eye that is your main or dominant eye
c. Dominant eye is the “image receiver”
d. The other eye is the measure of disparity and therefore depth
e. Very different- far
f. High degree of overlap- near
g. Development of hand eye coordination
5.
Demonstrates “use it or lose it”
6. Distinct
critical period for integrating the senses: age 3 to 4; damage by 6 or 7 and
complete loss by 9 or 10
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Audition slides
I. Audition or hearing
A. Audition process of sensing air
pressure changes
1. When you
hear a sound your ear is actually being massaged by sound waves
2. Detect
the massageaction potential to the brain
3. Air
pressure changes are more than just hearing
a. Hearing
b. Balance
c. Side to side detection (echolocation)
B. Loudness, pitch and timbre
1.
Loudness: decibels
2. Pitch:
frequency of the sound wave
3. Timbre:
many overlapping soundwaves
C. Critical loudness for humans:
1. Hear
beginning at about 10 dB
2. Hearing
loss begins at about 20 dB
3. Injury
to the ear occurs at 90dB or greater (70 dB for chronic noise)
D. Pitch
1.
Frequency of the sound wave
2. Hear
from about 20 Hertz to about 6,000 Hz (little kids 8,000; many adults only
4,000)
3. Pitch =
tone
a. 20 Hz sound is very low
b. 4000 Hz sound is very high
c. Perceived pitch: higher pitches are perceived as louder
E. Timbre
1.
Overtones on your voice or an instrument
2.
Individualized
II. Anatomy of the Ear
A. Parts:
1. Pinna:
outermost skin and cartilage part of the ear
2. Outer
canal
3. Middle
ear:
a. Ear drum or tympanic membrane
b. Three bones:
i. Malleus or hammer
ii. Incus or anvil
iii. Stapes or stirrup
c. Function is mechanical: pushing the sound back into the cochlea
4. Middle
ear problems
a. Bad eardrums from injection or injury
b. New ear drum; tympanoplasty
c. Three bones may calcify
i. Get a calcium buildup
ii. Don’t move anymore
iii. Titanium bones
iv. Otosclerosis
B. Inner ear
1. Oval
window: opening in the bone to the cochlea
2. Cochlea:
snail like indentation of the skull
a. Should have at least three turns, if not- Mondini defect
b. Three separate chambers
i. Vestibular membrane
ii. Basilar membrane
iii. Tectal membrane
3. How do
we hear?
a. Air pressure pushes down on the basilar membrane
b. Basilar membrane is lined with hair cells
c. Hair cells move back and forth
d. This motion produces action potentials to the auditory nerve and then
to the brain
4.
Vestibular:
a. Hair cells
b. Liquid in the ear
c. As the liquid moves back and forth with head movement, hair cells
wiggle- action potential- stimulates the vestibular nerve
C. How we hear: Theories
1. Place or
location theory
a. von Hemmholtz and then von Bekesy
b. you can detect different pitches because different hair cells in
different locations are stimulated
c. each spot on the basilar membrane is “tuned” to a different pitch
2. Frequency theory
a. The basilar membrane vibrates at different frequencies depending on
pitch
b. Slowly for low pitches
c. Fast for higher pitches
3. Volley
theory or the volley principle
a. Depending on the pitch, you get place, frequency, mixed vibrations of
hair cells
b. Place: 200-20,000 Hz
c. Frequency: 20-4000 Hz
d. Both: 200-4000 HZ (human speech range)
III. Hearing loss
A. Three basic kinds
1.
Conductive or mechanical loss: middle ear
2.
Sensorineural loss:
a. Cochlea
b. Auditory nerve
c. Mixed: both
B. Hear the different kinds of losses
1. Hearing
loss
a. Mild: 20-40 dB
b. Moderate: 40-60
c. Severe: 60-80
d. Below 80: deaf
2. Tinnitutus
a. Swooshing or humming or buzzing sound
b. Hair cells or nerve are always stimulated
C. How do we fix it?
1. Hearing
aids
2. Analog
hearing aids
a. Cheap: $200-$600 each
b. Make ALL sounds louder
3. Digital
hearing aids
a. Mini computer
b. Aid each frequency or pitch individually
c. Price: $750-2500 A PIECE
d. Hearing aids come in all different sizes and shapes
4. Cochlear
implant
a. Bypass the cochlea
b. Computer chip in: under skin above your ear
c. Run a wire into cochlea and attach to the auditory nerve
d. Wear a microprocessor on the outer part of your head
e. Hearing aid sends the sound to the microprocessor
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2/20/08 Learning,
Habituation and Classical Conditioning
Habituation and
Classical Conditioning slides
I. Learning
A. Definition
1. Rely
on a change in behavior
2.
Relatively permanent change
3. Rule
out maturational change
4.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to environmental
change and not maturational change
B. How to tell is you learned
1. Have
to have behavior
2.
Increasing rate or quality of the behavior as the organism learns
3.
Maximum amount of learning about anything- asymptote
4.
Change in the curve prior to asymptote = learning
5.
Behavior at asymptote is performance
6. Take
many behavior measures
C. Several KINDS of learning
1. It
is a continuum
2. All
related and there is no real clean break between kinds of learning
3.
Habituation
4.
Classical conditioning
5.
Operant conditioning
6.
Modeling or social learning
II. Two most basic kinds
A. Habituation
1.
Learning NOT to respond
2.
Learning to ignore the irrelevant
3.
Underlying assumption: animals optimize
4. At
birth babies know how to habituate
5.
Dishabituation: change in the situation and you pay attention again
6.
Makes an efficient organism
B. Classical conditioning
1.
DesCartes: reflex arc or spinal reflex
a. Found that this reflex could be conditioned
(learned)
b. Use to think that only reflexes were classically conditioned, but
this is not really true
2.
Pavlov
a. Russian physiologist- salivation
b. Found that the dogs could predict when events were going to
happen- “made slobber”
c. Called it classical conditioning
C. Design of classical
conditioning
1.
Pavlov’s study: bells and food
2. Pair
the bell with the presentation of the food
3. Dogs
naturally slobber to food
4. Soon
the dogs began to slobber to bell
5. Name
the parts of this sequence
a. Unconditioned or unlearned stimulus: US
i. Naturally occurs
ii. Not learned
b. Unconditioned response: UR
i. Naturally occurring response
ii. Unlearned
c. Conditioned stimulus: CS
i. Learned cue or stimulus
ii. Predictive of the US
d. Conditioned response: CR
i. Learned response to the CS
ii. Occurs to the CS
iii. May or may not look like the UR
D. Characteristics of classical
conditioning
1.
Learning curve: it takes many trials to reach asymptote
2.
Strength of the response or the rate of learning depends on how strong the
cue or CS is
3.
Extinction: if the CS no longer predicts the US, you stop responding
(habituation)
4.
Spontaneous recovery; situation similar to the learning situation can bring
an old response back!
5.
Relearning is faster
6.
Generalization: you make similar responses to similar CSs
7.
Discrimination: learn to make the CR to only very specific CSs
E. 4 procedures that demonstrate why predictiveness is
SO important
1.
Simultaneous conditioning: CS is presented at the SAME TIME as the US-not
much learning
2.
Delayed conditioning: CS goes off, the US immediately goes on: great
conditioning
3.
Trace conditioning: CS goes off, break, US goes on: depends on the time gap
for how well you learn it
4.
Backwards conditioning: US then the CS
F. The form of the CR may be
different than the UR
1.
Typically, they are similar but NOT identical
2.
Pavlov: US saliva had more digestive enzymes than the CS saliva
3.
Sometimes they can be OPPOSITE or compensatory
4. Drug
response and addiction/tolerance
a. US morphine -- UR feel less pain, colder, lower BP, decreased HR,
etc….
b. CS: syringe CR: feel more pain, hot, increased BP and increased
HR
c. Homeostasis: keep our body in balance, on an even keel
d. Step down reflex compensates for the drug effects
5. CS
is predictive of the drug
a. CS can be the syringe
b. Environmental setting
c. Time of day
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2/22/08 Classical
conditioning applications and Operant Conditioning
Habituation and
Classical Conditioning slides
Operant conditioning slides
I. Classical Conditioning application
A. Learned emotional responses
1.
Little Albert study
a. US: loud noise
b. UR: fear
c. CS: white rat
d. CR: scared of the rat
2. John
Watson showed that emotional responses can be learned, not just innate
(1921)
3.
Generalization: objects similar to white rats
4. Plan
was to show that what was learned could be unlearned-Albert moved away
5. Why
do we use cute little puppies in advertising?
B. Remove the emotional
responses
1.
Systematic desensitization
2.
Systematically desensitize you to the CS
3.
Afraid of heights:
a. Flooding: put you in a glass elevator hanging over the canyon
until you aren’t afraid anymore
b. Shape you;
i. Thoughts or pictures of heights (mild or weak
CS)
ii. Pair that with calmness and relaxation
iii. Increase the strength of the “bad” CS but pair it with
relaxation
C. Get rid of bad behaviors or
“bad associations”
1.
Smoking cessation, eating (over eating) problems and sexual problems
2. Like
to smoke: poison the cigarette- get sick when smoke; associate smoking with
sickness
a. Tends to be taste specific
b. Same with food: taint your favorite food
3.
Chemotherapy or other medical treatments: inadvertently create taste
aversion conditioning
4.
Sexual deviancy
a. Typically learned or conditioned
b. Accidentally: pair some bizarre stimulus or feeling with sexual
arousal or gratification
c. Fetishes
d. Break the pairing:
i. Penile seismometer
ii. Measures erections and delivers shock
e. Not very successful: about 90% of sexual predators will repeat
D. Advertising
1.
Industrial/organizational psychology
2. Pair
product with CS (picture, icon, song)----pair it with a “fun, or happy”
feeling
II. Operant conditioning
A. So far:
1.
Habituation: learn to ignore and not respond to irrelevant stimuli in your
environment
2.
Classical conditioining:
a. You respond to predictive cues
b. Why? Because they predict an upcoming event
c. Don’t have to respond- not contingent or causal
B. operant conditioning
1. The
organism must make a response in order for the consequence to occur
2.
Consequence is contingent on the response
C. Edward.L.
Thorndike: The Law of Effect
1. Cats
and a puzzle box
2. Put
cat in box and the cat had to do some trick to get out
3.
Speed of the response increased with trials
4. The
law of effects; when a response is followed by a satisfying state of
affairs, that response increases
D. B.F. Skinner:
revised the law of effect
1. 2
issues:
a. Define satisfying: noisy word, not well defined
b. Use the reinforcer: make the connection between the response and
the consequence STRONGER
c. Define increase: significant change in probability
2.
Define reinforcement: when a response is followed by a reinforce, that
response increases in probability
3.
Define punishment: when a response is followed by a punisher, that response
decreases in probability
E issue of positive and negative reinforcers and
punishers
1.
Reinforcer increases responding
2.
Punishers decrease responding
3.
Positive: + add something
4.
Negative: - take away something
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2/25/08 More
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning slides
Remember: Test next
Wed Mar 5th
I. Remember: so far we have learned
A. Three kinds of learning so
far
1.
Habituation: learning NOT to respond to irrelevant stimuli
2.
Classical conditioning: learning to respond to predictive stimuli (there is
no contingency between the response and the CS)- being prepared
3.
Operant conditioning: respond to get access or avoid access to consequence:
response is required
B. Four kinds of consequences
in OC
1.
Positive reinforcement: add something to increase responding
2.
Negative reinforcement: take away to increase responding
3.
Positive punishment: add something to decrease responding
4.
Negative punishment: take away something to decrease responding
II. Parameters or characterists of operant conditioning
A. Acquisition or learning
curve
1.
Asymptotic curve: rises and then levels off
2.
Maximum amount of learning
3.
Shaping of the response:
a. Teach the response
b. Teach pieces of the response: successive approximations
c. At this point: reinforce A LOT
B. Several factors affect how fast you learn
1. Size
of the reinforcer: moderate size
2.
Quality of the reinforce: moderate quality
3.
Delay between the response and the reinforce: immediate
C. Extinction in operant conditioning
1.
Shows a different graph function
2.
Increase in the response before the decrease: TRANSIENT INCREASE
3.
Extinction induced aggression
4.
Spontaneous recovery: the response will come back if the situation becomes
similar to the old situation
D. Generalization and discrimination
1.
Learn to make the response under many similar stimuli (generalization)
2.
Learn to make the response ONLY in specific situations (discrimination)
3. Use
SD’s or discriminative stimuli : S+ or S-
E. Schedules of reinforcement:
1.
Continuous reinforcement schedule or CRF: every response is reinforced
a. Satiation and habituation
b. Too much
c. Use this for shaping
2.
Partial reinforcement: PRF
a. Only some responses will be reinforced
b. Thins out reward and extends behavior
3. 4
basic schedules of PRF
a. Fixed ratio: each nth response is reinforced
i. FR5: every 5th
ii. Piecework
iii. Break and run pattern: work hard to get the reinforcer, then
take a break
b. Fixed interval: the first response after X amount of time is
reinforced
i. FI 60 sec: the first response AFTER 60 sec
ii. Scalloped responding
iii. Tests every 4 weeks
c. Variable ratio: on average, every nth response is reinforced
i. VR5: 1,9,5…….
ii. Slot machines
iii. Fast and steady responding
d. Variable Interval: VI
i. On average, the first response after x amount of time is
reinforced
ii. VI 60 sec: average out as 60 sec
iii. Pop quizzes
F. Superstition
1.
Sometimes the organism connect a response to the reinforce that is NOT the
contingent response
2.
Accidental conditioning
3.
“flap your wings and turn around 3 times after shutting down the interface,
it will work again”
4.
Superstition can be maintained accidentally if the real contingency is still
in effect
5. Wii
6.
Accidental behaviors can interfere with the real contingency or cause harm
7.
Obsessive compulsive behavior
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2/27/08 Biological
Boundaries of Learning and Conditioning
slides for Animal Learning!
I. Animals used in psychology across a variety of
different kinds of research:
A. Behavioral Neuroscience research
1.
Comparative research
2. Learning
research
3.
Applications to animal welfare
B. Today
let’s discuss three models and theories that have lead to dramatic changes in
human and animal behavior:
1. Garcia
effect or conditioned taste aversion
2. Learned
helplessness
3.
Preparedness learning or behavior systems model
II. Garcia Effect or Conditioned Taste Aversion
A. Several groups of rats were
classically conditioned:
1. Grp I:
Tasty Water--> Nausea
Good Conditioning
2. Grp II:
Bright Noisy Water-> Shock
Good conditioning
3. Grp III:
Tasty Water--> Shock
No conditioning
4. Grp IV:
Bright Noisy water--> Nausea
No conditioning
B. Why? A
“biological boundary” may explain this phenomenon:
1. Look at
the TYPE of stimuli that are being used:
2.
Categorize each as an internal or external event
a) Grp I: Tasty Water--> Nausea
Internal
Internal
b) Grp II: Bright Noisy Water-> Shock
External External
c) Grp III: Tasty Water--> Shock
Internal
External
d) Grp IV: Bright Noisy water--> Nausea
External
Internal
3. Can’t learn ACROSS modalities very well!
C. Important
Properties of Taste Aversion
1. single
trial learning
2. lasts
long time periods
3.
generalizes
4. species
and modality specific
D. Uses
1. Humans:
dietary restrictions and smoking cessation programs (but will switch brands and
tastes)
2. Can
develop CTA with Chemotherapy- must watch pairing good food with nausea
3. Most
important use: Wildlife Management:
a) Coyote management
b) Wolf management
c) Bear management
4.
Application: How can you keep your dog out of the garbage?
III. Learned helplessness: Marty Seligman
A. Initial research paradigm: Four
groups of dogs
Training I and II
result
Lasting effects
1. Grp I
Escapable/escapeable
run
None
2. Grp II
Inescapable/inescapable
not run
None
3. Grp III
Escapable/inescapable
not run
None
4. Grp III
Inescapable/escapable
not run
Severe
5. Remember, Seligman’s hypothesis was that NONE of the dogs would be
significantly harmed.
6. Key
Factor = inescapability
7. once
learned not to escape (learned to be helpless)= not change
B.
Characteristics of L.H.
1.
inescapability that produces phenomenon, not the shock itself
2. works
under variety of procedures, conditions
3. very
generalizeable, transferable
4. if take
far enough, can make it a contingency rule for the animal, rather than specific
contingency for specific situation(s)
C. Symptoms
of L.H.
1.
passivity
2. learned
laziness
3.
retardation of learning
4. somatic
effects
5.
reduction of helplessness with time
D. Clinical
expressions of learned helplessness
1. School
phobias
2. and math
anxiety
3. Abusive
4.
Relationships
5.
Depression
6. Cultural
learned helplessness
E. “Curing” or eliminating
learned helplessness
1. Unlearn
the rule
2. Reshape
or recondition
3. Must be
done in situation where organism cannot fail
4.
Difficult to do- animals can “not” respond
5. UPenn
program on relearning thoughts during test taking
IV. Behavioral Systems of Behavior: Biological
Preparedness
A. Are boundaries or systems
of behavior
1.
Behaviors are clustered into groups of relevant behaviors
2. These
may be biologically relevant
3. May be
hard wired in many animals
B. Several
“modes” of behavior
1. Feeding
mode
2. Sexual
mode
3.
Aggression mode
4.
Misbehaving Animals
C. Marion and
Keller Breland
1. Students
of B.F. Skinner
2. Went to
Hollywood to train animals for films and commercials
3. In
process of training, discovered consistent “misbehavior” of animals
D. Several
examples:
1. Miserly
raccoon
2. Piggy
Bank Pig
3. Dancing
Chicken
4. Baseball
playing Chicken
E. Why? Instinctive drift
1. Whenever
situation permitted, specifies specific behavior patterns intruded
2.
Instinctive behaviors competed with operantly conditioned behaviors
3. Not
random, but predictable
F. Species
specific
1. Related
to reward
2. acting
almost as a CR
3.
inteferes with contingency!
G. bottom
line: our instinct is to learn, predict and adapt to our environment!
1. we don’t
have a lot of “hard wired” behaviors
2. those
that are hard wired are altered and changed via learning to predict and control
events in our environment
3. our
biggest instinct is to learn!
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2/29/08 Applied
Behavior Analysis
I. Functional Analysis
A. Determining the function of the
behavior
1. Trying
to find what contingencies maintain the behavior
2. Can be
environmental
3. Can be
“internal” environmental effects
4. Must
“listen” or observe behavior to determine causes!
C. Reinforcer
Hierarchy: make sure the client is as independent as possible:
B. We learn when the contingency is in
effect and when it is not
1. SD versus S∆
2. SD: R-->Sr
-The signal tells the organism the contingency is in effect (the
reward/punisher will not be received)
3. S∆: R 0
-The signal tells the organism the contingency is not in effect (the
reward/punisher will not be received)
II. Determining Effective Reinforcement Procedures in
Applied Settings:
A. Criteria for a Reinforcer:
1. Must be effective
2. Must be
able to predict a priori the:
3.
direction of behavior change
4.
magnitude of reinforcement effect
5. Must be
highly flexible across different populations and settings
B. Traditional Models of
Reinforcement:
1. Rely on
transituational approaches to reinforcement
2. “Once a
reinforcer, always a reinforcer”
3. Produced
catalog of items, but not good efficacy or reliability
4. Do not
really allow a priori predictions
C. Alternative Viewpoint:
1. Think
of reinforcers as something you want
2.
Punishment as something you don’t want
3. Time out
is extinction from reward and too much “nothing”
D. Disequilibrium models:
1. Idea
that we are at a state of equilibrium
2. If we
don’t have enough we will work to get more
3. If we
have too much we will work to get less
4. How make
something reinforcing?
a. Take it away
b. Give the person less of it
c. Sell it!
d. Can be anything or any activity the person wants
E. Why not use negative
reinforcement?
1. Side
effects: don’t like the person delivering negative reinforcer
2. Uneven
and sporadic behavior
3. Strong
stimulus cues: only behave when “sD” is around:
when teacher not there, the kids go wild!
F. Punishment effects
1.
Traditional Definition: Any contingent event which results in a decrease in
operant responding
2. New
Definition: Punishment effects are Produced when schedule constraints produce a
state of of disequilibrium
a. Punishment as satiation:
b. Give the individual “Too much” of something contingent on a behavior
III. Punishment and Time-Out:
A. Guidelines for using positive
punishment
1. Behavior
must be dangerous to person or others
2. No
chance to interrupt and reinforce “good” behavior
3. Tried
other alternatives
B. Rules for Using Time-Out
1. 1 minute
per year of age
2. Must be
quiet to get the timer to start
3. Cannot
use for dangerous, disruptive or self-stimulatory behavior
4. Must
really be “time out” from other rewards
C. Negative Punishment
1. Response
cost: your response costs you something or some behavior
2. Two
parts:
a. Restitution: reinstatement of environment (clean up)
b. Positive practice: practice better response for situation
3. Can also
use satiation/habituation
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3/3/08 Modeling or
Social Learning Theory
Remember: Test on Wednesday! Chapters 3
and 5!
I. So far we have learned about
A. Several types of learning
1.
Habituation
2.
Classical conditioning
3. Operant
conditioning
B. Biological limitations on
learning
1.
Boundaries or rules that restrict learning
2. Our
“hard wiring” may make us learn in certain ways or attend to certain stimuli
3. Social
boundaries for learning
C. Third or fourth kind of
learning: Social learning
1. Modeling
2. Learning
vicariously or by observing someone else doing the behavior
II. Social learning theory
A. Social learning
1. Do not
have to have direct experience with the learning
2. Learn by
seeing another organism experience consequences
3. Attend
to social cues
B. Animals learn via social
learning
1. If one
horse learns to open a gate……all do it
2.
Primarily in mammals
3. Only
social organisms learn via modeling
C. Albert Bandura (Stanford Univ)
1. Uses
social learning to explain social, personal and developmental competencies
2. Add a
cognitive or thinking component to his model
3. Add some
new concepts:
a. Rewards: convey information
b. Incentive motivation: reinforcement
c. Vicarious learning: learning by watching
4.
Modeling: learning by watching an identified model
D. Four mechanisms for social
learning from a model
1.
Attentional processes:
a. Must attend to the model
b. Several factors that affect attention:
i. Learner:
1. Be awake
2. Be able to observe
3. Interest
ii. Model:
1. Distinctive to the observer
a. Sex
b. Age
c. Ability
2. Affective valence
a. Emotional tone you set for the observation
b. Complexity
2. Retentional processes
a. Remember all the steps the model did
b. Memory abilities
i. Familiarity
ii. Amount to be remembered
c. Ways of remembering
i. Verbal memory: words
ii. Imaginal or procedural memory: images or the behaviors
iii. How I practice can make a difference
iv. Little kids can’t do either kind of “remembering” very well
3. Motoric reproduction abilities
a. Must be physically able to do the response
b. Problem in young children
c. Self observe and give yourself feedback
4. Reinforcement processes
a. If you are not personally rewarded, you won’t keep doing the new
behavior
b. Reward is still necessary for the observer
c. May have to self reward or be rewarded vicariously
III. Why is this important?
A. Where
do many of our behaviors come from?
1.
Bobo doll studies: 1960’s
a. Bobo was a blow up clown with a weighted bottom- punching clown
b. Examined the behavior of preschoolers:
i. Originally, just use boys, later used girls
2. groups:
a. Group that watched a grad student beat Bobo
b. Watched a Disney nature flick
c. Test: kids got to play with Bobo
d. Found: kids who watched a model beat Bobo were MUCH more aggressive to
Bobo
B. do kids learn TV violence?
1. yes!
2. what
kinds of TV are worse?
a. cartoons: Bugs bunny/Road runner hour
b. nightly news:
c. news resulted in more violent behavior: Viet Nam clips
d. kids can tell real from fake, and they are more likely to imitate live
action than cartoon
C. sexual behaviors
1. most
children interviewed state they learned their sexual courtship behaviors from TV
2. Doepke
study: known abuse victims compared to “controls”
a. allowed to play with anatomically correct dolls
b. shown that dolls were correct
c. abused kids played explicitly sexual ways with the dolls
d. controls: enaged in “sex role” play too!
3. MTV and
music videos: treatment of women
D. Helping
behaviors:
1.
calling 911
2.
learn cpr, and rescue techniques
3.
be careful when kids play these games
E. therapy: social skills training
1.
practice social skills by watching and observing
2.
model does the correct behavior, learn it
3.
model does the behavior wrong- observer corrects it
4.
teaching new and appropriate responses
5.
peers are best models
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OLD LECTURES
9/17/07 Visual Anatomy
Visual
Anatomy
I. The nature of light
A. Light = electromagnetic
radiation
1. composed of photons
2. travel in waves
3. wavelengths make up “color”
psychologicially
4. photons give us the “saturation”
or richness of color
B. physical
measurement and a psychological measurement
1. wavelength of light = physical
2. psychological measure of “color”
3. visible spectrum = part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that humans can see
a.
“rainbow”
b. Put all
the visible spectrum light waves together = white
c.
Monochromatic light = 1 color
d.
Brightness = saturation
C. why do we
need to know this?
1. eye must
convert electromagnetic radiation from the visible spectrum into an action
potential that is sent to the brain
2. light
come into the eye (right amount)
3. shined
onto the retina which contains our photoreceptors (light receivers)
a. Chemical reaction
b. Turns off the receptors
c. Turning off will cause an action potential
d. Goes to the brain, and is processed
II. Parts of the eye
A. major parts
1. cornea
a. outside most part of the eye (you put your contacts onto this)
b. clear, smooth, rounded
c. astigmatism is wrinkle in the cornea- screws up focusing
2. aqueous humor:
a. pouch of watery liquid right behind the cornea
b. garbage waste system
3. Iris and pupil
a. Iris: colored muscle of your eye
i. Striated muscle
ii. Sphincter muscle
iii. Limit the amount of light coming into the eye
b. the pupil: hole into the back of the eye
4. lens
a. Transparent, smooth, flexible
b. Same material as your fingernail
c. Ciliary muscles: push and pull to change the shape of the lens
i. Flatten the lens for far away objects
ii. Round the lens for near objects
d. cloudy lens = cataract
5. vitreous humor
a. large chamber of the eye
b. contains fluid
c. gives the eyeball its shape
d. should be nice and round (not oval)
6. retina
a. lining along the back of the eyeball
b. layered
i. receptor cells
ii. nerve cells
c. two important kinds of receptor cells
i. rods: rod shaped
1. black and white or day/night vision
2. 120 million
ii. cones: cone shaped
1. color vision
2. 5 million
d. connect to the optic nerve:
i. blind spot
ii. no rods or cones in the spot where the optic nerve exits the eye
e. fovea: where most of the cones are in the retina
B. connection
to brain
1. leaves
the retina via ganglion cells
2. ganglion
cells make up the optic nerve
3. optic
nerve leaves the eye and splits into 2
a. one side goes to the left hemisphere
b. one side goes to the right hemisphere
c. split is called the optic Chiasm
4. optic nerve and optic chiasm to midbrain or lateral geniculate nuclei
(LGN)
a. arousal
b. Notice sudden movement
5. radiations from LGN to occipital lobe
a. Areas 17, 18 and 19 primarily
b. Code incoming information in layers
6. two kinds of pathways
a. ambient vision: what is it
b. Spatial vision: where is it
C. vision
problems
1.
astigmatism
2.
nearsighted: myopia
a. Lens is too round
b. Eyeball is too long
c. Fix it: CONCAVE lens
d. Lens minifies
3. farsighted: hypermetropia
a. lens is too flat
b. eyeball is too short
c. fix it: CONVEX lens
d. lens magnify
4. strabismus: misaligned eyes (one eye muscle is too weak or strong)
5. cortical
blindness: brain is “blind”
III. Color vision
A. Two theories of color vision
1.
Trichromatic theory: 3 colors
a. Young (1880), von Hemholtz (1950’s)
b. Three kinds of cones make all colors
i. Work in combination
ii. Mix to make individual color combinations
c. red, blue and green wavelengths = white light
d. if this is true: 3 kinds of cones! And there are!!!!!!
2. problem: opponent process problem
a. black ---- white
b. Green ----- red
c. Blue ----- yellow
3. brain processes 4 colors and black/white in PAIRS
a. black ---- white
b. Green ----- red
c. Blue ----- yellow
d. Neurons in the brain
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I. Rules for Perceiving the world
A. remember cells in brain
1. retina:
rods and cones
a. rods connect many rods to 1 bipolar or ganglion cell
b. cones connect 1 cone to 1 bipolar/ganglion cell
c. more precision: color vision
2. go to brain: up optical nerve tract, optic chiasm, to LGN, to
occipital cortex
3.
specialized cells in visual cortex
a. On/off cells
b. Center and a periphery of their “visual field”
4. many kinds of specialized vision cells:
a. lines and edges
&nbs
