Dr. Jamal Nassar 

Political Science, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois 61790-4600 USA

General Information:

Courses:

Student to Student Textbooks:

Humanitarian Sites:

Other:

Chaper One: "Forms of Government" by Eric Bohm
Throughout the world there are many different forms of government. Some forms may be very close in identity to another, but have a different name. Some governments may have ideas that are completely different than others, but have the same name. Most people think of politicians when they think of government. While politicians do play an integral role in how the government is run, they are only a small part of the process. Government is defined as, a mechanism that people employ to protect themselves. By this definition, that means that government is all around us.
There are many different levels of government. For example, everyday you attend school you are affected by local, county, and state government. Considering that the State of Illinois owns Illinois State University, how state government affects you is self explanatory. Local government affects you due to the fact that the apartment or house you live in, needs to meet codes and ordinances that have been put in place by the local government (town council). County government affects you in regards to the type of law enforcement that is around you. For example, McLean County is a fairly wealthy county and is able to afford good quality law enforcement. This enables the county to keep crime rate down to a level that is acceptable to the people who reside within its borders.
The forms of government we learned about in class consisted of monarchies and republics. The three monarchies we learned about were absolute; constitutional; and limited. The three republics Dr. Nassar introduced to us were dictatorships; oligarchies; and democracies.
Some governments around the world consist of rule by the few. This form of government, called oligarchy, is reminiscent of South Africa until 1990. Prior to this time, South Africa's government was controlled by the minority white people. Only 15 percent of the total population were white, but they somehow continued to control the majority. Oligarchy falls under a broader category, which are called republics. Republics are forms of government that simply don't have monarchs.
Another form of a republic is a dictatorship. Dictatorships are forms of government that are ruled by one. The dictator is neither a king or queen. If you were to ask a dictator what their actual title is, they would not tell you "dictator," because they do not want to admit to being one. Some of the most noticeable dictators in the world rule countries such as Cuba, China, Iraq, and Syria.
The third type of republic is known as democracy. In a democracy the government is ruled by the majority. Many believe that this form of government is the best, because the people have the power. A "true democracy" consists of the people within the state controlling all that goes on within its borders. This would mean that every time there is something that needs to be voted on, all the people of the state would vote. While this may be the ideal way to have a democracy, this is not how most democracies are carried out. For example, in the United States we have what is called a "representative democracy." A "representative democracy" consists of representatives who are elected by the people. The representatives are then assigned the duty of voting on matters for the people. The representatives are supposed to take the views of the people into account when they vote on legislation.
Another form of government is a monarchy. A monarchy is a form of government that has a monarch. Most monarchs have either a king or a queen. The monarch is usually a son or daughter of a past monarch. While this seems to be a simple type of government, that is not the case. The three monarchs we studied are drastically different from one another.
The first type of monarch we studied is the absolute monarch. An absolute monarch has absolute or total power over the state. Whatever the monarch says goes. The monarch is the supreme ruler and should never be questioned. There is no such thing as a constitution, so the people only have the rights that the monarch bestows upon them. An absolute monarchy can be found in Saudi Arabia.
Constitutional monarchy is another form of monarchy. This type of monarchy is found in Sweden and the Netherlands. The monarch's power is defined in a constitution. This means that the monarch does not have complete power over the people. The monarch has powers that the people have agreed to throughout time.
The last type of monarchy is called limited monarchy. This type of monarchy ensures that the monarch only has ceremonial powers. These powers consist of such duties as dedicating buildings and ships. This type of monarch has no governmental powers whatsoever. The United Kingdom has this form of monarch. The queen has no power over the government. The parliament controls the governments affairs, while the queen is only seen when there is some kind of holiday or occasion in which she needs to attend.
As you can see there are many different forms of government throughout the world. Some of the governments may resemble another form due to its name or category it falls under, but none of the forms are identical. Some countries believe they have the "best" form of government. Others try to copy forms from countries that have succeeded and fail while trying to do so.
There have been wars fought over conflicts between two different forms of government. This has usually been done by countries that feel they are the "superior," or "chosen ones," who need to lead the world. Maybe the "chosen ones" should step back and let the developing countries decide for themselves which form of government works best for them.
Chapter Two: "Colonialism and Neocolonialism" by Lindsay Sweet
States have been practicing colonialism and neocolonialism for centuries. Colonialism is practiced when one state has control over another state and the people in it. This control is usually a combination of political, economic, and social control. Colonialism is sometimes confused with imperialism, which has a similar meaning. But while colonialism is holding colonies and exerting control over the people there, imperialism is the specific act of attaining those colonies and control over them. Leaders who conquered other states used to be viewed as honorable. Most people in the world do not feel this way anymore, however, as the words colonialism and imperialism have taken on a much more negative connotation. States in most areas of the world have practiced imperialism and colonialism at some time in history. In the most recent centuries Western states have been the guiltiest. There are at least five main reasons why states practiced colonialism in the past. These include religious and cultural motives, economic motives, strategic motives, surplus population motives, and prestige motives.
For western states, religious motives refer mainly to the desire to spread the Christian faith to other corners of the world. Cultural motives refer to this as well as language and culture. Unfortunately, in many places after places had been colonized, the conquerors did not think that the indigenous people living there were very worthy. Therefore they did not view their traditional culture as being worthy of preserving. This led to colonizing states having a big impact on the places they colonized. The mother countries thought they were doing their colonies a favor by sharing their religion and culture that they thought to be "better." Most of their influence is still present today and is visible in areas that used to be colonies of western states.
Another major motivation for states to colonize other states is for economic gains. Holding colonies was viewed as affairs of business. Almost all states that practiced colonialism did so in order to make profit and become richer. All policies were made to benefit the mother country, often at the expense of the colonies. For example, states would use the natural resources and human labor of the colonies. In exchange, the mother country would provide the colonies with finished products that they needed as well as other things. Colonies may have only been allowed to trade with the mother country. This was a very monopolistic practice because the colonies are at the mercy of the mother country for all of the goods that it needs to import and must pay any price asked, while at the same time the price it gets for its exports are whatever the mother country asks for.
Strategic motives for holding colonies often were in relation to the military and defense of the mother country. For example, a state may want to acquire new colonies nearby or close to other colonies it holds for protection and support of its own people as well as its other colonies. Another example is the attaining of colonies in strategic places for the benefit of the state, such as islands that can be used for refueling and repairing ships. Colonies like these were often established as military bases. Colonies that were established for strategic purposes such as these have faced many difficulties after colonization ended. Many of them had few resources and economic worth, however their economies were supported by the mother country for so long that now they cannot survive without the mother country, which must continue to support them now.
The final reasons for colonization were as outlets for surplus population and for prestige. While neither of these was ever likely to have been the main cause for colonization, they certainly played factors. Colonies were used as an answer to overpopulation of the mother country. Sometimes convicts and people in debt would be sent to colonies. In the case of prestige, having colonies and being able to maintain them was symbolic of power and greatness.
Since colonialism is no longer viewed as honorable or prestigious, a process of decolonization has been taking place and many former colonies have become or are in the process of becoming independent. Unfortunately when these colonies have been artificially supported and controlled for such a long time they find many difficulties when they are on their own. This has been termed the "legacy" of colonialism. The legacy of colonialism affects the government, education, economics, health, and stability of the country. In the case of government, after the mother country pulls out of its colonies, there are few natives that are experienced in any area of the government and civil service. When there have been few experts to take over, former colonies have often become susceptible to corrupt bureaucracies and dictatorships. In education, some natives received a western education. As a result, they became too educated for their own country while at the same time they were resentful of the West. In economics, the needs of the former colonies have been dependent on the western states that controlled them for so long and had been producing exports solely for the state that controlled them. When this monopoly ends the colonies are forced to change what they produce so they can support themselves. In the case of health, colonies have had access to better health practices and medicine, which has resulted in a longer life span for the people. Unfortunately, this results in a population explosion that the newly independent state often cannot support. Because of all of these problems that these states face, they have had trouble achieving stability.
The final legacy of colonialism is the modern version of exerting control, which is neocolonialism. Neocolonialism is different from colonialism. The state that was formerly a colony has become legally independent and now the influence is indirect: through business, culture, and military practices. For example, developing states often need financial and military help and must give in to almost any political pressure to get it. In addition, developed countries dominate others economically because the decolonized states do not have the wealth to keep up with the free trade practices of the developed world. Finally, since the recently decolonized states and third world countries are highly unstable, they must still rely on powerful states for support and protection. Again, they will have to go along with almost any political or economical influence if they expect to get any military supplies or help from a powerful developed country.
In summary, colonialism and neocolonialism are practices that affect a great portion of the world both in the past and still today. The motives for establishing colonies in the past (cultural, economic, strategic, population relief, and prestige) have dwindled and as a result much of the third world is presently decolonizing or recently decolonized. Now the leaders and states face many problems that are the legacy of colonialism. These problems include dependence on the developed world in government, education, economics, health practices, and for stability. In addition, the practice of neocolonialism, in which dominant states influence others indirectly through finance, business, culture, and the military continues to be a problem that developing states face. As long as these practices continue, the developing world is going to have a hard time trying to catch up with the modern world. Ironically, developed states expect exactly this of the third world, while at the same time it is their own very practices that are holding them down in political, economic, and social instability.
Chapter Three: "Ideologies and Third World Socialism" by Courtney Moritz
In class we have been discussing ideologies. What is an ideology? What are some examples? Well, an ideology is a belief or system of beliefs. Although we only discussed political ideologies, there are other ones as well. An example of an ideology is womanhood or femininity. What makes a woman a woman? She should be submissive, weak, and emotional. She should wear a dress, take care of the kids, and clean the house. So, what does this have to do with political ideology? Some examples of political ideology include democracy, democrats, republicans, capitalism, communism, etc. Like womanhood, each of these ideologies has it's own set of characteristics, or trademark. Republicans are known to be pro-life, wealthier, and conservative. Democrats want more government, support unions, and have a more liberal approach. In class, we have been focusing on one of the main political ideologies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, Third World Socialism.
Third World Socialism is a type of government found in the Middle East. This type of government is somewhat like capitalism and somewhat like communism. It has taken these two types of governments and built their own. In the Middle East the majority of the leaders come from the middle to lower class of citizens. Many also come
out of the military. These leaders are not trying to become the leader or president at first. They are unhappy about their current situation, or the situation of the country and just want to change it. Third World Socialism has several beliefs policies that it typically follows.
The first belief that this type of government demonstrates is a rejection of capitalism and communism. Capitalism causes exploitation of the masses. Everyone is in it for the money. The wealthy people dominate. With their money and power, they can effectively take advantage of the less fortunate citizens. Communism lacks incentive for these areas. Everyday these traditional societies try to "catch up" to the developed, modern societies. With communism, the government owns everything and everything is supposedly equal. This kind of a set up would slow down their progress. They are tired of dominating states controlling their lives; communism wouldn't be any better.
The next policy that Third World Socialism follows is that all natural resources belong to the nation. Everyone has a right to these resources. The government does not allow people who stumble upon some oil to benefit greatly, like the United States does. If a family accidentally finds ore under their house, the government will take it and use it for the good of the public. In the United States, these people are given obscene amounts of money for accidentally buying a house on top of some oil. In these areas, the governments try to ration out the natural resources so everyone can use them.
Another policy that this area supports is the right to land reform. A good example of a land reform is Egypt. Before Third World Socialism, many of these places had feudalistic governments, including Egypt. In Egypt, 2% of the people owned 75% of the land. The other 98% of the people were considered serfs, or servants to the land. They were bought and sold with the land. When Gamal Nasser took over Egypt in 1953, he began the Land Reform Act, also known as the Agrarian Reform Act. With this act, he was allowed people to own no more than 1,000 acres of land. The rest had to be sold or put into the names of family members. The government then bought the excess land at tax value. All of the peasants that didn't have land were given a maximum of 1,000 acres of land to build houses and cultivate. Nasser even built agricultural centers in the middle of these areas to teach the former servants how to farm. Former servants could get tractors, combines, and other necessary farming equipment from these centers to help them. Within three years, Nasser successfully ended feudalism with his Land Reform Act. This is why land reform is so important to Third World Socialism.
A fourth policy that Third World Socialism follows is the right to own private property. Unlike communism, a system that allows the government only to own property, this type of government lets the people buy land, businesses, homes, etc. The citizens have the right to run businesses with one exception. They cannot run a monopoly. The United States also protects its citizens with laws against monopolies. Several years ago, the US government decided that a particular phone company, AT&T, had a monopoly over the telephone industry. AT&T had to break up to allow other
companies to compete, offering the US citizens more of a choice. Now we enjoy commercials giving us all sorts of different names and numbers to call in order to save 40% on long distance calls, among other offers. Third World Socialism prevents the AT&T's of the Middle East from taking over and ripping off the public.
The last policy that Third World Socialism practices is the right to public services. These countries nationalize all public services. The government does not think that people should be able to profit off of providing others with needed services. They don't believe that the wealthier citizens should be allowed to have access to necessities when the poorer people suffer. The government offers many different services to the public. Government employees provide utilities to families. If a family defaults on their heat bill, the father may go to jail, but the rest of the family will not go without heat, unlike in the United States. People can get medical attention and prescription drugs for free. Public transportation is also provided as well as financial services. There is one other public service that the government supplies.
The last public service that is provided by the government is education. Everyone has the right to go to school, regardless of social class. The government allows children to attend schools for free. Right before they graduate, the students are allowed to take college entrance exams. The students that pass the exam will be allowed to go to college for free. This might sound like a good deal to any college student struggling to get through, working two jobs to pay for tuition. It's not all that it's cracked up to be. First, the government makes a five-year plan to assess the needs of the area five years down the road. By looking ahead they can see which fields are going to be short on people and take care of it before it becomes a problem. Next, the students do not get to pick their own majors. After the government determines which fields will be needed, they look at the college entrance exams and fit students with the field that they excel in. Third, the students do not choose their schools. No college visits or recruiters. Again, the government will place students in the best schools in the region for their field of study, which they didn't get to pick in the first place. So, yes, education is free! College is free to those who pass the exam, but at what cost?
Does Third World Socialism work as well as it sounds? No. The bureaucracy runs all of the public services that were just discussed. A bureaucracy basically is a group of government employees. They do the work. Why does this hurt Third World Socialism? There are three main problems with the bureaucracy. First, the culture contradicts the structure. Sometimes the religion, tradition, or way of life just doesn't fit with the way that the system is set up. Maybe the system was set up BEFORE the culture had been established and just hasn't adapted. Maybe the culture has gone through some changes and the system hasn't adapted. Perhaps the culture was set first and the system didn't consider some or all parts of it. What ever the case may be, this leads to a gap or hole in the system. The next problem with the bureaucracy is political intervention. Many times the bureaucracy will be a dumping ground for under-qualified, unemployed people. Most of these people barely got their high school diplomas. The third major problem with the bureaucracy is corruption. The system is full of nepotism, or hiring friends and family. Bribery is another large part of the system. Money is used to get key positions in the government. Because of these problems, Third World Socialism is not as successful as it could or should be.
Third World Socialism is a government designed to help the Middle East "catch up" to the developed states. Many of the ideas that have been discussed may seem out of whack and even crazy, because they just don't fit with what we are used to. They aren't like the ideas, rules, and policies of the United States government. Just because they are different, do not necessarily mean that they are wrong. They are doing what they feel is right for their region at this time.
Chapter Four: "Nationalism" by Sarah Helm
Within this essay, I have decided to focus on nationalism. I will be incorporating class discussions as well as lectures to illustrate nationalism and its consequences around the world. Furthermore, I will include an example of nationalism while using the historical events of Egypt. In doing so, I hope to provide a clearer understanding of
nationalism and its effects.
To begin, the description of both states and nations needs to be given. Within a state, governments are in charge. Around the world, there are about 200 states. Elements of statehood include people, land, government, and independence or sovereignty. Most states have a nation or a nation state. A nation state is composed of a group of people who are similar to each other. One nation may have more than one state. Examples of this include Arabs and India.
Nationalism occurs when people fall in love with their nation. Nationalism originally occurred in the West in the eighteenth century. However, this phenomenon has now spread across the world. Furthermore, nationalism tends to occur when one nation believes that they are greater than another nation. Common bonds of nationalism include common territory, common language, common culture, and common enemies. As discussed in class, an example of common territory could perhaps occur while on Spring Break. There are different groups of people from around the United States on Spring Break. Therefore, if you would happen to find a group of people from Illinois, you would automatically feel closer to them even if they attend another school. Common language may occur if you have gone overseas to study abroad. If you decided to study abroad in Italy in an area where no one spoke English, it would be difficult for you to feel close to anyone. However, if you came across a couple from Australia, you would feel closer to them even though it is much farther than Italy from the United States. Common culture would consist of working socializing, praying, etc. with each other. Moreover, within common culture, you share common history, tradition, and religion. Lastly, common enemies as a bond of nationalism are needed for people to remain united. For example, Israelis need the Arabs to unite.
Nationalism also contains commonly used symbols to depict a nations patriotism. These may include a nations flag, national anthem, legends and slogans, and historical sites. A flag can sometimes be hurtful or harmful. Thus, people are passionate about it. In the United States we have many rules regarding our flag. For example, it is not acceptable for it to touch the ground, or for it to be burnt. Everyone has a national anthem. Each nation claims that theirs is the best. Everybody believes that they are the land of the free and the home of the brave. As Dr. Nassar stated, "If you get goose bumps during the national anthem, you are probably a nationalist." In addition, each nation has its own legendary stories and or slogans. In the United States, many of us remember the story of George Washington and the cherry tree. Every nation has a story like this that is used to describe a sense of nationalism or patriotism that they carry within their respective nation. Every nation also preserves historical sites. An example of this in the United States would be the homes of George Washington or Abraham Lincoln. In Egypt, historical sites would include the pyramids.
As a nation, we tend to measure everyone by our own yardstick. Meaning, we judge other nations by our specific principles instead of taking their perspective into consideration. As discussed in class, consequences of nationalism include each nation becoming the center of its own universe, colonialism, wars of national liberation, and racism.
Again, we tend to measure everyone by our system of morality. In our course book titled The Other World, the authors state that, "The 'foreign devil' is one of the primary motivations for modern nationalism; that is, leaders in both the East and the West portray other leaders as foreign devils to secure popular support for their own policies." Instead of encouraging unity, we discourage it. Furthermore, colonialism is also considered a consequence of nationalism. Colonialism is to rule other people while taking away their resources for the benefit of the Motherland. The ideas of trade developed through the Industrial Revolution. Within the Industrial Revolution, Europe went other places to get raw resources. For example, Europeans stopped at the Gold Coast while convincing Africans to mine the areas so the Europeans could take the resources back with them. When the resources were depleted, Europeans had the natives kill the elephants for their tusks. After this was over, they took the people and sold them in return for silver and gold. The Europeans then divided the country and made it into cocoa plantations. Once the Africans rebelled, they were left with no resources.
Another example of colonialism would be in Central America. We call Central America the banana republic because the Chiquita Banana Company owns it. The United States employs people of Central America to work for the Chiquita Banana Company. However, we do not pay them enough money to live on. At the same time, we are depleting them of their resources. Therefore, these corporations make money off of all of these peoples backs. The President of Guatemala is the plantation boss. If he decides to rebel again the United States, he would be out of office. The United States started the revolution against colonialism. However, we send troops to other areas such as the Gold Coast and Central America to make sure that we are profiting.
In the past, we have seen many wars of national liberation being fought. The first struggle against colonialism was fought during the American Revolution in order for the United States to become independent from British rule. Consequently we have seen many countries lead wars to become independent from colonial including Africa and Asia. Unfortunately, thousands of people have died through these wars of liberation. Racism has also been a variable for war. A prime example of this would be the ethnocide that occurred in Nazi, Germany in the 1940s. Again, this is an example of how nationalism divided the people.
Within this section, I will focus the case study of nationalism and its effects in Egypt. According to the text in The Other World, "Egyptian nationalism emerged as a reaction to Napoleon's invasion in 1798." Until the rise of Egyptian leader Gamal Abdul Nasser in 1952, Egypt remained in colonial rule under the British. In the year of 1881, Egypt found itself under British colonialism. Within the capitulation system, non-Egyptians were exempt from Egyptian law. Therefore, if a British person had to go to court, Egyptians would not try them. This is a reason as to why we find more Egyptian mummies in the West than in Egypt. Thieves and robbers stole them under this system.
In addition, Egypt's mode of production consisted of feudalism. Within feudalism two percent of people owned seventy-five percent of the land. The majority of these people were surfs who worked the land for the landlords. This system had been in place before the British colonized. Hence, the British decided to keep this system of feudalism.
In 1868 the Suez Canal was built which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. Before the Suez Canal was built, people had to travel all the way around Africa and then back up to Asia. A French engineer who hooked up with the British formed the thought. The British and the French then took it to the Egyptian King. The King stated that Egypt was broke. However, he said that he would provide the manpower if they would agree to split the fees in three ways. For the first 100 years, the British and the French are in control of the canal.
After World War II, the British were still running everything in Egypt. The Egyptians finally began to get frustrated and organized themselves into a group called the free officers. The free officers included Gamal Abdul Nasser, Anwar Sadat and ten others. Their intention was to take over the government. On July 23, 1952, the free officers called in troops to surround Egypt. They went to the Egyptian King in Alexandria and asked the King to sign a piece of paper stating that he would step down or they would arrest him for treason of the Egyptians. The King signed the letter and announced that Egypt was no longer a monarchy, it was now a republic.
As a consequence of this and other events, Nasser eventually became the President of Egypt. After his speech in Alexandria, Nasser became known as a charismatic leader. A charismatic leader is one in which the leader becomes the new God. The people of Egypt attached themselves to Nasser while putting their hopes and dreams into him.
By 1953, Nasser had put into effect a system that would eventually end feudalism. He decided to implement a land reform act commonly known as the Agrarian Reform Act, which stated that no Egyptian, should own over 1,000 acres of land. This act also stated that each peasant would be granted thirty to forty acres of land in order to build their own home.
After this success, the next question involved what the Egyptians should do about British rule. Nasser wanted to nationalize the Suez Canal but the British and the French responded with, "No way." Nasser then sent troops to the Suez Canal to get the British out. Immediately, the British and French sent in their fleets. The Israelis send their troops to fight against Egypt, as well. The Soviet Union then threatened the three countries by letting them know that if they did not withdrawal, then they would send their troops. In addition, the United States also stood up against France, British, and Israel.
It took months for the British, French, and Israelis to evacuate. This was, in fact, the height of the Cold War. Later, the countries sat to negotiate. Nasser stood up against the colonial countries and won. Gamal Abdul then became a global leader to the people of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Although the Egyptians eventually won their independence, they are still faced with the effects of the long time colonial rule. The book The Other World states that, "No Egyptian government can hope to make significant improvements in the lives of the people in the foreseeable future." Therefore, the West should not be puzzled when the animosity remains from the Other World for a long time to come.
Chapter Five: "Women and Politics" by Melanie Bertilson
Throughout the world, women have faced unequal conditions in the political arena when compared to men, and women of the Third World are no exception. Past political studies have often excluded the roles women play in the political development of a country. Fortunately, more recent studies have acknowledged the contributions of women to the politics of their countries.
The latest analysis of Third World nations shows that women have received the right to vote many years after other industrialized countries. However, countries almost now uniformly allow for women to have suffrage rights, except in Saudi Arabia, which still denies women the right to voice an opinion in elections. In most societies, the traditional cultural values are the reason for limited participation in elections.
As these traditional values are broken down by modernization, Third World countries are seeing more participation from their female populations. The countries have seen a dramatic trend for university-educated women to be more involved in politics than were their mothers. Areas with the absence of educational opportunities show low political participation today. This is especially true of the poor women of Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East.
Another factor for a woman's political involvement is her social class. Women from elite Third World families are more likely to be concerned with politics than women of equal stature in Westernized countries. Many women have held high political positions in the Indian subcontinent countries in comparison to North American and Western European countries.
Modernization has been both a blessing and a curse politically for many Third World women. Middle-class women have benefited the most from Western lifestyles because they are able to work outside the home and involve themselves with the political process. Nevertheless, for many women, modernization has not increased political activity. The traditional cultures of many Third World countries had firmly established women's organizations and production techniques. These were key factors in connecting the women of the community. The current migration to cities of women and families has created an absence of the extended family, and it denies women of traditional supportive organizations.
In relationship to the work force, modernization has stripped women of specialized labor functions through mechanization. Mechanization, the use of machines for the manufacture of a product instead of manual labor, not only decreases a woman's desire to become involved with politics, it also removes some of her pride in her work. Women living in urban areas often find employment within the informal sector. Working in this sector makes women less likely to become involved with politics because often the government has no direct influence over this sector.
Third World women make the greatest impact on political structure at the grass-roots level. Community organizations provide opportunities for the women to lead others in issues directly affecting them. The issues of importance to women include health care, housing, education, and clean drinking water. The village groups are physically closer for the women to reach. In their societies, there often is not daycare service provided for women while they attend the meetings.
The women's organizations have many benefits for the political system and for the women themselves. The women's participation at the grass-roots level may not cause instantaneous, drastic changes in the political system; instead the movements encourage comprehensive participation in the political system by women. The more politically experienced middle-class women often lead the organizations. Low-income women are encouraged to join the groups and thereby gain political awareness, self-assurance, and assertiveness. The rural community groups are more likely to initiate a protest in comparison to their urban counterparts because the women living in urban areas are more skilled in the political arena. The rural women must resort to obvious action in order to achieve reaction among local politicians.
A more in-depth examination of the different regions of the Third World shows that in Latin America a large number of grass-roots organizations began in opposition to authoritarian military governments. The bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes banned political and union activities and arrested, tortured, and killed anyone suspected of such actions. Women had a large role in opposing the regimes of Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay and restoring democracy. The persistant peaceful protests by women allowed them to gain advantages with human rights issues because they were seen as less threatening to the political position of the regime.
Three different types of political organizations were formed. The first was composed of feminists from middle- or upper-class families. Many of them represented the professional woman of the time and their needs in the workforce. Second, neighborhood organizations characterized the beliefs of the women from the country's urban slums. These groups were often self-sufficient during times of great economic need. The small beginnings of the neighborhood groups often led women to push the government for more the equal distribution of state resources. Finally, human rights movements were founded to stop or uncover government involvement with the torture and disappearances of many citizens of the countries with authoritarian bureaucratic regimes. Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo is a famous organization that marched every Thursday to demand that the government explain the missing children and grandchildren in the countries. This movement was the most socially integrated, uniting women of both the working and middle classes. Human rights movements led by women proved to be more effective because they had more freedom than other organizations. Their freedom was a result of the government viewing the women as less political and therefore less influential.
A frightening statistic from around the world shows that women are underrepresented in the political leadership positions in most political systems. The women who are fortunate enough to gain a political leadership post often find themselves in a position associated with female qualities. These positions are related to education, women's affairs, health, and social welfare. Once the women gain the roles as leaders, they are forced to legitimize their activities outside of the home by becoming "super mothers." These women are expected to nurture their constituents, often considered an extended family.
The opportunities for women in political leadership positions have been limited in the past by a "glass ceiling," which keeps the women at local or state legislatures. In recent years, however, many Third World countries have shown progress by increasing the number of women involved in legislative and executive offices. Some countries have more women involved than the United States! Asia has had the most women leaders, although Latin America boasts a few impressive women leaders. Two characteristics connect these leaders thus far: The women are from the upper class, and they are all wives, widows, or daughters of charismatic national leaders.
Female participation in Third World politics is on the rise and has gained recognition in recent years. However, the success may be either on the coattails of a male or restricted to an area of the government with which women are most familiar. The great success of women within the past 20 years should not go unnoticed as women around the world continue to strive for greater political involvement.
Chapter Six: "Women and Development" by Amanda Moore
British philosopher, logician, and social critic Bertrand Russell wrote, "For my part, I distrust all generalizations about women, favorable and unfavorable, masculine and feminine, ancient and modern." This conclusion is also most certainly central to author Howard Handelman's statement when he concludes that "the political and economic status of Third World women is anything but uniform."
Having said this, however, I do wish to offer one observation which I feel permeates this topic historically, politically, economically, and culturally. This observation is neither particularly profound nor astute, only a fact: Women are the child-bears. And, although I digress from my reaction to women's development in Third World countries with a wholly Western illustration, it directly presents the basic point in fact. I am acquainted with a married woman in her mid-thirties who has risen in her career to the level directly below the vice presidents' layer in a well known world-wide corporation. As each promotion presented itself, she delayed child-bearing until she attained the next level. She rises each morning at five a.m., leaves her home at six, and reaches her desk promptly at seven. She leaves her desk at six p.m., picks up her husband at the commuter station at seven, and they arrive home about seven-thirty in the evening. About two weeks in four, she travels to Zurich or another world capital, not returning until late Saturday because typically a closing business/social event is scheduled on Friday evening. She is now very close to attaining vice-president status, and is pregnant. This couple is quite wealthy and can certainly afford child care at any price. Their poverty, however, is in time. Neither has any flexibility -- the husband also holds a high level corporate position. Thus, when one carries the matter of gender equality even to the highest levels that women have attained, as illustrated herein, child-bearing issues are still a major factor/dilemma. I do feel that although I note and agree with both Russell and Handelman regarding the dangers of generalization and the lack of uniformity, the child-bearing issue is one which is universally pervasive and germane to this topic.
Remaining cognizant of the child-bearing issue, in reacting to and reflecting upon Handelman's article, one must first determine his position on the development of women and gender equality. I deduce from the tenor of his entire article, as well as from two of Handelman's concluding statements, that he fully supports the emergence and equality of Third World women as well as women everywhere. He first states, "Since full gender equality does not exist yet in industrial democracies...," which appears to indicate that gender equality would be a laudable goal. He then finally concludes by saying, "The women's movement was born in the Western world a mere three decades ago, and one can only speculate as to its influence in the Third World three decades into the future." I thus conclude that Handelman supports the emergence of gender equality, a premise with which I agree.
Having established Handelman's support of the emergence of women, I wish to examine the three factors he deems most relevant to the emergence of women in Third World counties, while overlaying each factor with the child-bearing issue which I find extremely pertinent. I must interject that while Handelman does not specifically dwell upon child-bearing, he does repeatedly emphasize the "double day" concept, which includes not only child-care after a long day's work, but also the myriad of other household duties assumed by women.
First, Handelman examines the effect of the prevailing religious and other cultural values in various regions upon the emergence of women. He concludes that religious fundamentalism, particularly in Islamic states, "does not bode well for women's rights." His enumeration of the large numbers of Third World women currently subjected to these fundamentalist regimes, indicates that at least at the current time, the prevailing religious and cultural values in many Third World regions are having a generally detrimental effect upon women. In addition to Handelman's conclusion, I must also ask, How does this then affect those women as the child-bearers? I would deduce that the condition of these women may be negative for child-bearing and rearing in a diametrically opposite manner from that of my female executive friend. It would appear that these women are often considered to be only child-bearers, shouldering all responsibility for children. In my estimation, this condition is detrimental both to the women and the children involved.
The second factor which Handelman explores with regard to the condition of women in Third World counties is the relevance of a region or nation's level of socioeconomic modernization. He concludes that initially, modernization of the culture may have a negative impact upon women because they are often displaced from their former roles, which may well have been more prestigious or at least more gender-equal than their roles in the emerging modernized society. Handelman does proceed to the conclusion, however, that as modernization continues, the middle class enlarges, offering more educational and other opportunities for women, thus aiding in their emergence over the long term. When he leaves this conclusion at this point, however, a question remains for me: As these women emerge as a result of modernization of their culture, how is their child-bearing and child-rearing affected? I, unfortunately find the same dilemma I reached in discussing my modern female executive friend, that little time would remain for quality child-rearing. And, in Third World countries, for at least many years in the future, there will not only be a lack of time, but also a lack of financial resources for child-care.
Finally, Handelman examines the relevance of the emergence of women to the type of political regime in place in a country or area. His exploration of this issue reveals a vast diversity of effects of political regimes upon the emergence of women. He does conclude, however, that perhaps a popular assumption of "improving" Third World countries to democratic status, is not necessarily effective for the emergence of women. Handelman states, "With only such small democracies such as Iceland, the Netherlands, Finland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden even approaching it" (democracy), it seems likely that a political shift to democratic status will not "automatically bring gender equality to the developing world." So, what about child-bearing issues with regard to political regime? Handelman makes several relevant points in this regard. He relates that in many fundamentalist states in Third World countries, "political leadership is exclusively male preserve." He also discusses the assumption that in socialist regimes, there is the "Marxist belief that all social inequities --whether based on gender, race, religion, or the like--are derived from class divisions." Both of the aforementioned conclusions indicate to me an absence of concern for the importance emergence of women. It would thus appear that the political regimes in place today in many of Third World countries do not encourage nor condone the emergence of women; thus, I am inclined to draw the same inference regarding child-bearing and child care as I did in the discussion of current religious and cultural values in Third World areas. Many of these women appear to be relegated to only the role in life as child-bearer and caretaker. Again, in my estimation, this condition is detrimental both to the women and the children involved.
Is there a utopian solution to all of these issues? I think not. As Handelman has repeatedly indicated, the people, conditions, values, and cultures are too vastly diverse to draw any uniform or universal conclusions. I do believe, however, that in all dialogue concerning the emergence of women, not only in Third World countries, but throughout the world, an integrated discourse must also take place concerning the effects upon children. Because the basic fact remains -- women are the child-bearers.
Chapter Seven: "The New International Economic Order (NIEO)" by Dawn Lader
The Third World consists predominately today of the regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These regions are also known as the Other World or the Less Developed World. The reason for such titles is due to their transition from a traditional to a modern society. Most of the societies of the Third World are agrarian and very poor. Literacy rates are low; mortality rates are high, high birth rates, and a low level of urbanization. Many professionals that study the Other World research different ways to solve the high poverty problems and malnutrition that are characteristics of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
There are three ways that have come about to aid in the struggle of the less developed countries. The first way is at an individual level. Because poverty is a global problem this cannot be the only mechanism being applied. At the individual level one can join a club or do things such as sponsor a child to make a contribution to the needy. Because this would take a lot of effort from every individual it is an unlikely solution. The second solution would be at the national level. This can also be referred to as the state level. A holistic or systematic approach is the only legitimate approach. This solution would consist of countries that have the power to wipe out poverty if desired. The problem with this solution is that many of the more affluent countries are not willing to help or do not think that there help would make any difference. The last and more sensible way to eliminate Third World poverty and underdevelopment is a global solution.
In 1974 a group of southern, Third World countries drafted a solution to the United Nations at the General Assembly entitled the New International Economic Order or NIEO. Seventy-seven poor countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America formed a group called "The Group of Seventy-seven." Today over one hundred twenty-five countries have joined this group. The purpose of this meeting was to congregate the countries of the north (developed countries) with those of the south. They were met outside of the United Nations to work on solutions. The United Nations declared that the NIEO would help Third World countries in debt and banish disparities in the world. Eighteen clauses were completed in order to solve the problem of the gap. These clauses propose a way to get the northern, wealthy regions of the world to transfer twenty-five percent of the world's industrialization and manufacturing processes to the to the less developed world by the year 2000. I will discuss six of the eighteen clauses that were projected by The Group of Seventy-seven.
One solution to end the poverty gap between the north and south is to allow each state to be free in determining it's own political and economic system. For example, Afghanistan was taken over by the Soviet Union for many years to become a communist state. This would put an end to colonialism in the states but would allow states to have more freedom in decisions of economics and politics.
The NIEO claimed that each state should be free to own and control all of its natural resources. One example of this is Chile and its abundant supply of copper. Copper is Chile's number one product and is frequently exported to the United States as well as other countries. This industry used to be owned by the International Telephone and Telegraph (IT&T). In 1970, Salvador Allende was running for the Socialist Party in Chile. His slogan was "Chilean copper belongs to the people of Chile." He was voted as president and fulfilled his campaign promise by nationalizing the copper mines. Allende was later defeated by military troops that opposed his plans. IT&T came back and Chile became the number one country of torture use. The NIEO claims this to be immoral and takes away a state's freedom to manage their own resources and not be managed by more powerful influences.
A third solution would be to tie prices of raw materials to prices of manufactured goods. Prices for raw materials or unprocessed goods have, for the most part, remained steady. On the other hand, manufactured goods have shown a steady rise in prices. For example the price of a telephone in 1959 was only $2.00 but in 1969 that priced jumped to $20.00. Manufacturers increase the prices on products in order to pay for materials and to make a profit. Thriving countries have become very profit oriented. If a new product were created it would be sold for not only the price of how much it costs to make but also well over that cost. For example a phone that only costs $3.00 to be manufactured is sold today for $30-40 dollars.
A fourth global solution of the NIEO is reform to the international law. One example of this would be the laws of the sea. Many fleets travel the ocean that surrounds countries of Latin America to gather fish to sell to major corporations. This left nothing for the poor people residing on the coastal areas. The governments of Latin America got together on their own and made borders 200 miles from the coast out to the ocean instead of the three mile border that existed. The rich countries declared violation of international law. A meeting was formed to discuss the international law of the sea and a conclusion was founded in 1980. The New International Law of Sea said that territorial waters are twelve miles and ships and fleets would need a visa to enter. It also created economic zones 200 miles in length. Ships can sail in and out of this area but if they want to use the resources of the water they need a permit.
The High Seas are considered "heritage of mankind." The International High Seas Authority (IHSA) oversees the High Seas. The IHSA has thirty-six members elected by the United Nations with representatives from all areas and regions. In the High Seas fishing is open and free but oil and other resources are regulated. Major corporations take sixty percent of the profit from the high seas and the IHSA takes forty percent. That forty percent is put into the Heritage of Mankind. People can apply for this money if it is serving humanity.
Third World countries would gain more advantage if there were a system to allow a transfer of science and technology. Certain sciences should be declared as the right to all including knowledge of weather, healthcare, and education. For examples medicine such as the treatment for aids should be available to all regions of the world. Many African people suffer from aids and do not have any treatment available to them. Also, new technology is overpriced when it is first released in order to reimburse for loses when produced.
The final clause proposed that will be discussed is that foreign aid should be multilateral. Foreign aid should not just be distributed to one country from another but to a national agency. This national agency would look over the needs of those countries that apply and need the most assistance. This would eliminate favoritism that many countries have over another. For example the United States gives most of its foreign aid to Israel, which is not in is not as disadvantaged as other countries.
The transfer of rich to poor nations never occurred. The NIEO did achieve dramatic structural changes in the world economy such as the areas of commodities, natural resources, trade and monetary reform. For the developing nations, the NIEO meant that world market leaders such as Nike and Mattel no longer needed to keep factories under their own management. The simply billed orders to changing producers from Indonesia to Poland or Mexico or any country where costs were low and people could be employed on starvation wages.
The NIEO was disastrous to wealthier countries because millions of people lost their jobs. Many workers had their incomes diminished and had to accept poor working conditions. Small to medium enterprises not able to compete with the power of transnational corporations were eliminated. The only real benefits were the world's top transnational companies, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the United Nations. Maybe the mistakes and failure of the NIEO will aid to have a project that can actually work to eliminate the gap between the north and south. Until then it is a reality that neither an independent, national, or global solution can help less developed countries to advance into a modern society.
Chapter Eight: "Sweatshops Out of Sight, Sweatshops Out of the Shopper's Mind" by Nick Berveiler
Proper wages and the fair rights of workers can be easily found in America. However, the attention of the American public to fight for equal rights around the world is extremely limited. We cannot expect corporations to monitor themselves because they profit from cutting corners. Corporations have a huge conflict of interest when it comes to people over profit and are not getting any better. With understanding of what is going wrong, we need to learn from the resources we have available and put effort into solving the problems facing the world. Americans are a minority of people in the world and we need to start acting as global leaders for honesty and truth because we have advantages third world countries do not have. Many third world countries are underdeveloped, do not have natural resources and depend on the rest of the world. Although my opinion on this issue are biased towards people before profit, the need to expose what is going on to the American public is something we should always expect.
My most valuable resource for this paper is the National Labor Committee (NLC) whose web page, www.nlcnet.org has a wealth of information about third world sweatshop abuse and American corporations they have exposed. As well as supplying information from third world countries, they have found statistics and newspaper articles that provide credibility.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Third world counties such as Nicaragua, Haiti, Indonesia and many others have approximate hourly base wages under one US dollar per hour, Indonesia is at 10 cents an hour on average. These countries are in need of resources from the rest of the world, and are willing to take any new jobs offered. However with the introduction of corporations to third world countries, who come to make profit, there are people who want to take advantage of these countries. Corporations are not in third world countries to support a living wage. According the NLC:
A living wage is the take-home pay one adult person must earn during a legal work week to allow an average-sized family to meet its basic needs with dignity and save a certain portion for long-term planning and emergencies. Basic needs include food, housing, education, childcare, health care, clothing, energy, water, and transportation.
In China the average wage is 23 cents while their living wage 87 cents an hour. I have clothes that are made in China and chances are, according to the average, the people making my clothes have been paid 23 cents an hour while I buy that very shirt for 15 to 25 dollars. The math here is very alarming, the people making the clothes are being paid less than the companies selling the clothes, such as Kohl's, Gap, Disney, Wal-Mart, K-Mart, Target and J C Penny. Our major corporations say they have no control over what is going on and are doing everything they can. Is this True?
The culture in third world countries is traditional and the needs for jobs are much greater because of higher death rates, more children, and a larger family. These pressures are not as common in America and because we live so separate from these countries we cannot easily connect problems we have with problems they have. This year, the NLC has been reporting facts from Nicaragua about workers in the Chentex Factories that make blue jeans for Kohl's. These facts are hard to ignore: Workers often work from 7am to 7pm, six and seven days a week. These workers do not have the right to form unions and are afraid to speak out about conditions because of the threat of losing their jobs. Testimony from fired workers who came to America with the NLC to tell of the horrible conditions have even more to say from firsthand experience. Here is testimony from Zenayda Torres translated out of Spanish and reported in September 2000:
"Sometimes, when there was an urgent order, they made us work 24 hours straight. We worked weekends, often with no rest day. They treated us like animals, or as if we were a machine. They screamed at us, they called us crude, offensive names. Sometimes, they would hit a worker. When you made a mistake on the clothing you were sewing, they would throw it in your face and tell you to fix it. Often, they wouldn't give you permission to go to the bathroom when you had to go; they would only let you go two or at most three times a day. And they wouldn't give us permission to go to the Social Security clinic; when we got sick we had to work sick. ... The work is done on a production line of 120 workers. Each one is a specialist, doing the same operation 2,000 to 3,000 times during the 12-hour shift. Each operation has a piece rate according to its difficulty. We have the company documents that give the pay for each operation. For example, there are 38 steps to sew a typical style of Sonoma pants for Kohl's. When you add up the pay for all these operations, it turns out that the total pay to all the operators is just 20 cents per pair of pants. The wage increase we are asking for is just 8 cents per pair of pants. We have a base wage of $65 a month, or 30 cents an hour. But, working hard on production and working a lot of overtime hours, it is possible to earn up to 45 cents an hour, and 800 to 1,000 cordobas ($62 to $78) during a 2-week pay period. You can't live on that wage. It's not enough to buy the necessary food, clothing, medicine, transportation, and household expenses, and certainly not education. Most workers and their families are living in real misery, in tiny houses with dirt floors."
I do not like these reports and I am interested in learning what I can do to change this problem we are faced with. This problem does not end in the classroom. We cannot ignore this type of problem that we are indirectly associated with. We see jeans sold at extremely high prices and we cannot find proof that the workers who made these jeans are paid and treated fairly. The ways corporations have been able to get away with this is a terrible truth that is out there if we look for it and solutions are not easy for consumers to solve. According to the Chicago Tribune on August 24, 2000 "Its hard to find a shoe or a piece of clothing that you can be sure wasn't made in a sweatshop." Putting pressure on corporations is the only way to find answers and these corporations reply because they cannot afford a bad image, not because they are required by law to do so.
Kohl's has but up the defense that there is a monitor that insures that fair labor is practiced. Kohl's is taking this issue so seriously, they say that PriceWaterhouse Coopers (PWC) conducted a factory audit of a Kohl's contractor in Nicaragua in April 2000. The NLC has reviewed the information available about this audit and have concluded that the entire process was flawed and corrupt. The NLC reports:
"When it comes to the issue of violation of worker rights-mass firings, denial of the right to organize, forced overtime, below-subsistence wages-PWC is either completely silent or finds conditions "acceptable." ... The PWC monitoring report the NLC is releasing today is a complete whitewash, like putting lipstick on a corpse. Its purpose can be none other than to protect Kohl's--to give the appearance that Kohl's really cares about human rights, and takes these issues seriously, while in fact the company does nothing. ... This report once more by-passes 700 fired and blacklisted workers and union leaders who face up to 20 years in prison on trumped up charges, all for asking for an eight-cent wage increase! ... We have repeatedly asked Kohl's representatives to consult with respected local independent NGOs in Nicaragua who are very knowledgeable regarding conditions and events at the Chentex factory. But they refuse."
Considering the question of who to believe, the NLC is not making a profit by releasing the truth, and Kohl's is making a profit by hiding proof.
What can students do? This is my first semester learning about these issues and this is the first time I have really looked at these issues and wanted to make a difference. From what I have seen, the greatest problem students today face is a lack of support and lack of unity. We need to bring in as many people as possible, to fight for this cause. The more connected we are, the more powerful a force we can be. Rallies and protests at the mall is an effective method of getting the word out to shoppers, however since malls are recognized as private property we are subject to arrest for trespassing. Raising awareness is a huge goal for ISU No Sweat, a student group against sweatshop abuse. We have protested at Kohl's with the NLC and we have handed out fliers about sweatshop abuse at a Disney recruiting on campus. We are actively looking for new ways to reach students and citizens who do not understand what is going on around the world. There is question to how effective our organization really is because technically we have not actually reduced sweatshop abuse. However, to respond I would say that we are making a difference because we are putting the issue at a priority. With greater organization I believe we really can make a difference. If an organization such as No Sweat were to have the entire student body at Illinois State ready to act out on this issue and want to change world policy and make sure corporations were honest and fair, I believe we can make that difference.
Chapter Nine: "The Secrets and Lies of Child Labor" by Melinda Kouri
The complex issue of child labor is something that plagues many countries become an increasing problem in recent years. More specifically, India is the largest example of a nation plagued by the problem of child labor. Recent estimates, cited from an essay written by Mitesh Badiwala in 1998, state that there are between 60 and 115 million working children in India, the highest number in the world.
It is very difficult to give an exact figure for the number of children engaged in child labor. This difficulty is mainly attributed to the fact that the Indian Government "has been negligent in its refusal to collect and analyze current and relevant data regarding the incidence of child labor. As of 1996, official figures continue to be based on 1981 census figures" (Badiwala).
One significant factor to consider is just how necessary child labor is to families in India. Child labor is a large source of income for many poor Indian families. A study conducted by the International Labor Bureau of Statistics found that "Children's work was considered essential to maintaining the economic level of households, either in the form of work for wages, of help in the household enterprises or of household chores in order to free adult household members for economic activity elsewhere." In some cases the study found that a child's income accounted for between 34 and 37 percent of the total household income. The study concludes that a child laborer's income is important to the livelihood of a poor family (Badiwala). This relates directly to what we have talked about in class. The Other World states that, "Birthrates and poverty are closely linked. In poverty-level cultures, families live in the dilemma between the need for many workers and the risk of too many mouths to feed. The larger the family, the less each person's share of the family's resources. The poorer the family, the more likely the adults will find it desirable to add new family members as future caretakers and workers" (Weatherby 13). Unfortunately, it is this truth that proves a definite need for additional income within these families, and often times adults know nothing more than to send their young children off to work and help support the family. Families need money to survive, and children are a source of additional income. At the same rate, it is this way of thinking that shortchanges children out of the education and instruction that is vital for a stable future.
In the Third World countries, even though poverty is referred to as the main cause of child labor, it is not the only factor. Inadequate schools, a lack of schools, or even the expense of schooling leaves many children with little else to do but work. The attitudes of parents also contribute to child labor; some parents feel that children should work in order to develop skills useful in the job market instead of taking advantage of an education.
Steps have been taken to slowly eliminate this problem however. The Constitution of India clearly states that child labor is wrong and that measures should be taken to end it. "The government of India has implemented the Child Labor Act in 1986 that outlaws child labor in certain areas and sets the minimum age of employment at fourteen" (Badiwala). This Act clearly falls short of making child labor illegal though. Another noteworthy issue that must be considered is the state of education in India due to child labor. High illiteracy and drop out rates are definitely reflective in proving the insufficiency of the educational system.
One must consider that poverty plays a dominant role in the ineffectiveness of the educational system. Drop out rates are so high because children are forced to work and earn money to support their families instead of going to school and receiving the education that they rightfully deserve. Parents in these Third World countries often feel that work develops skills that can be used to earn an income, while an education does not help in the matter. This is not a problem that can be overlooked. Steps must be taken to eliminate this problem so that the future of Third World countries, such as India, is more stable and does not completely rely on youngsters having to give up everything to work and support their family.
Unfortunately, this is not only a problem in Third World countries though. Specific sources have been able to pinpoint child labor secretly occurring in the United States as well. These children live in a world apart from most Americans, hidden from consumers and often times even the companies that buy the products of their labor. Yet, these products can sometimes be as close as the local mall or the corner grocery store.
In a report on the topic of child labor in the United States, written by David Foster and Farrell Kramer, it is noted that a study by Douglas L. Kruse, a labor economist from Rutgers University, estimates that 290,200 children were employed unlawfully just last year. Some were older teens working a few too many hours in after-school jobs. But among them were 59,600 children under the age of 14 who worked in garment sweatshops with repeated labor violations. Other estimates include the following:
-Close to 4 percent of all 12- to 17-year-olds working in any given week were employed illegally.
-Employers saved $155 million in wages last year by hiring underage children instead of legal workers (Foster and Kramer).
A century ago, more than 2 million children labored in America's factories. In the early 1900s, however, the public opinion began to change and had a much dimmer view of child labor. The thought was that too much work too young would rob children of an education, condemn them to a lifetime of poverty, and missed opportunity.
In 1938, Congress declared an end to "oppressive child labor" by enacting the Fair Labor Standards Act. The 1938 law set age minimums designed to ease children into the adult world of work. The new act included the following provisions:
-Children must wait until the age of 16 to work in factories during school hours.
-Children under the age of 14 are barred from most jobs except farming.
-Children under the age of 12 are banned from most farming jobs but can work on their parent's farm or on a small farm exempt from federal minimum-wage laws.
-Children under age 18, or 16 on farms, are cannot work from a list of jobs deemed hazardous (Foster and Kramer).
Now a days, even the most simple and innocent of situations can be taken the wrong way. A few prime examples come again from Foster and Kramer's report: "Toss a bucket of cucumbers picked on an Ohio farm by 10-year-old Laura Mares into a truckload harvested by adults, and the entire load becomes 'hot goods.' So do any pickles or relish made from it." Another example shows the importance, in specific circumstances, and the need for the money earned in child labor: "On a simmering July day near Bowling Green, Ohio, Pasqual Mares looked sadly at his 10-year-old daughter Laura, her back bent over a row of cucumbers. In a full week of harvest work, Mares said, he, his wife, and their two working children had earned just $120-far below the normal minimum wage. Mares continued, 'Someday, I want my children to be treated like human beings, not like animals. It's not right that the children have to work. But we have to do it.'"
In conclusion, it is hard to look at a subject such as child labor and find any kind of excuse for it. It is not right that children should have to work and miss out on the opportunity of an education, but sadly, in many places around the world there is no other alternative. The only recourse that can be taken now is for the government to take action and help these families that must subject their children to this type of manual labor. In time, government programs may be established in order to lessen this problem and possibly eliminate it from the future. These children are the future; they deserve every opportunity to enjoy life to the fullest and live in a world where they aren't required to additional labor to support their families in need.
Works Cited
Badiwala, Mitesh. "Child Labor in India" 1998.
www.ask.jeeves.com.
Foster, David and Kramer, Farrell. "Secret Child Labor in
America."
http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/munmei/labor.html.
Weatherby, Joseph N. The Other World; Issues and Politics
of the Developing World, 2000. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
Chapter Ten: "World Hunger" by Sharif Alhamed
Every day I have found that 40,000 children die from hunger and starvation. Now you might just look at this number and say to yourself "Wow, that is a big number," but the truth is you shouldn't look at this as just a number. That is 40,000 individual children that die per day. Did you ever sit to think how many families were devastated by the loss of their child and how many families are actually involved with these 40,000 individuals? What about what these children would have ever grown up to be? What if one of these children were to find a cure for AIDS and another find one for cancer then these children wouldn't be just a number. The idea of world hunger is not just a problem in today's society but yet a disease that is infecting the whole world. Even the "great United States of America" has problems of its own. Today we will discuss world hunger as a whole and the twelve myths of hunger, what can we do about this growing disease, and finally what is being done as we speak.
First to be discussed is the twelve myths about world hunger and these I found from a book called World Hunger: 12 myths by Frances Lappe. To each of these twelve myths there is a reality and we will discuss that also. The first myth is that there is not enough food in the world to go around. Now in reality there is an abundance of food to go around not too little amount. It is said that enough wheat, rice, and other grains are produced to provide every human being with their daily-recommended calorie requirement (3,500 calories). It is said that there is also enough food available to provide at least 4.3 pounds of food per person a day worldwide. Us Americans alone eat about 40% of all beef, 30% of all seafood, and 33% of all dairy products. Now why do we need so much when a lot of people don't even get their daily requirements? The problem is that a lot of people are too poor to buy food and that is the problem. The second myth is that nature is to blame for famine and this is proved wrong as for reasons stated above which is there still is enough food to go around. The third myth stated is that there are too many people on the Earth right now. Now in reality birth rates are falling rapidly. There is an example stated that Costa Rica with only half of Hondura's cropped acres per person has a life expectancy of eleven years longer than Hondura's as well as other developing countries. In other words they have more population than other countries but their nutrition is better because of their longer life expectancy. The fourth myth is one that states if we feed all these hungry people it would undermine our environmental resources. The truth of that is that large corporations are mainly responsible for deforestation and the ruining of the planet. Also most of the pesticides in Third World countries are used for export crops and not for the crops that the people in the country need. Fifthly a myth that says The Green Revolution is the answer. The Green Revolution is that of the use of genetics and chemicals to produce more product. This is partly true except that attempts of the Green Revolution to end hunger have failed in countries such as India, Mexico, and the Philippines. This is because the more grain and other products these countries produced the more they exported and the more hunger persisted. The sixth myth about world hunger is we need larger farms. The truth is that most landowners who control the best land for farming leave most of it idle and it even is so that small farmers usually produce more than what large land owning farmers do. The seventh myth of hunger is that the free market can end hunger. The problem with this is the idea that such a "market is good and the government is bad" and this "formula" can never help address the causes of hunger. Usually in every economy the market and government are combined to distribute goods but with the free market idea it makes you choose one or the other. The eighth myth is that free trade is the answer and this has been proven to fail at alleviating the hunger disease. For example while soybean exports in Brazil shot up to feed Japanese and European livestock hunger spread from one-third to two-thirds of the population. Ninth is the idea that people are too hungry to fight for their rights. In reality everyday we get pictures of poor people as being weak and hungry when the obvious is that it is hard to survive in such poor living standards or at least that is what I believe. I don't feel that anyone at Illinois State University could survive in the conditions that these people live in and that makes them strong, not weak. The tenth myth is that more U.S. Aid will help the hungry. The truth is that one-third of our foreign aid goes to Israel which is an ally of ours who doesn't really need it. Forty-thousand children die a day and we are sending money to one of the countries that least needs it. Our foreign aid is not used to help these people it is used against them. Eleventh is the idea that we benefit from their poverty that is true but also false, as I have found. You ask, well how can this be? Well yes by paying these people little money for our imports we do benefit. Yet we do pay heavily for the widespread hunger in the world. For example because we can pay individuals from other countries a lesser amount of money we take U.S. jobs and give them to people there. The last myth of hunger is that curtail freedom will end hunger. This has been proven wrong to the effect that there is no distinct relationship between world hunger and those individual's civil rights.
Now that we all know the twelve myths about world hunger and why each and every one of these is called a "myth" we can discuss certain actions we can take. All age groups can take actions. For example according to the web page What Kids Can Do here are some ways that a child can make a difference in the fight over world hunger. The five major steps include education, volunteer, write letters, give testimony, and fund raising. The first step is said that we should educate our young to tell them about this disease. The second through fifth steps of this operation include volunteer work, writing letters to government officials, giving a testimony and fund raising to give money any way you can. I believe that it is better for a child to take a stand against this because in America I feel we would listen to children's cries for help rather than adults. The truth of the matter is that hunger can be ended and that is the real sickening part of the whole thing. The struggle to end hunger is a human issue and must be dealt with because we as humans haven't organized our societies in ways that assure everyone happiness. There are four main things we need to do according to the Conference on Actions to Reduce Hunger Worldwide and their book called Overcoming Global Hunger in order to end this disease. One is the idea of vision, which is seeing a future of achieving this problem. Next is that we need to be committed to our goal because visioning it won't make it happen. Next is leadership and I feel this is very crucial to the survival of a goal. There needs to be great leadership also for a vision to survive and carry on. Lastly, there needs to be a strategy to the goal and an action we take towards it. Every strategy must be made to take a giant step forward towards the goal.
Lastly some things that have happened rather recently are changing the problems of world hunger. The big thing in this happened in 1990 at the World Summit of 1990 which included the goals of reducing child death rates by at least one third, reducing maternal deaths and child malnutrition by one half, providing all children access to basic education, and giving families access to clean water and safe sanitation. Though this has failed to some aspects because nearly half of rural women are illiterate. Also about twelve million children die a year from preventable diseases and malnutrition and 100 million children are not even enrolled in primary education. One billion people also lack safe sanitation. Although these statistics still haunt the world there has been progress. The goal of immunizing 80% of the world's children has been accomplished and has saved the lives of 3 million children annually. The percent of children enrolled in primary education has risen by 2% and the level of U.S. foreign aid has risen. There is also a new act that is more recent which is The World Summit for Children Implementation Act of 1997 which calls for increased funds for child survival and more support for non-governmental health services. This act hopes to improve the original World Summit of 1990 and ensure that everything will be as expected. I also have found a web site called the Hunger Project, which is committed to the end of hunger. Now this is just one of the many websites that I have found but I would like to take time out and explain this particular one. They believe that the strategies and actions needed to be taken toward the end of hunger come from a set of principles. These sets of principles also should come from two main ideas, which are "confrontation with the commitment to ending hunger and from a deeper examination of what it means to be human." These actions are said to "evolve and refine in the actions themselves." This means that these principles are shown when the actions and strategies are performed themselves. The idea of what it means to be human is further defined as us as humans need to live a life of dignity. We as humans also need a life of meaning and purpose to know that our lives make a difference. This web site (listed in sources) is a very informational and dedicated organization. This is just one little step to add to the big step of stopping hunger.
We must look at ourselves not as Americans or Africans or Latin Americans but as people and brothers. We are all brothers and sisters of this world and need to treat every one else who inhabits this world as family. Lots of us are left in the dark or just quite don't understand the idea of hunger and what it is all about. We get tied into these twelve myths about world hunger and think, "well why can't we just do that." The answer to that is it is not as easy as it sounds. I believe that to end hunger and poverty in the world it has to be a group movement and only then we can end it. To unite would make us stronger for example if you throw one pebble at a window it won't make a difference yet if you throw six billion pebbles at a window you will smash that window right in. That is what we need to do: unite and conquer this epidemic that is plaguing the only world that we live in. There have been many steps taken towards this goal and only time will tell what will happen.
References
(1998, October 19). Results. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.action.org.

(1999). Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy. [On-Line]. Available: foodfirst@foodfirst.org.

(1999). Kids Can Make a Difference. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.kids.maine.org.

(1997, November). The Hunger Project. [On-Line]. Available: http://www.thp.org/.

Lappe, Frances Moore (1998). World Hunger: 12 Myths (2nd ed. fully rev. and updated). Emeryville, CA: Grove Press.

Conference on Actions to Reduce Hunger World wide (1994). Overcoming Global Hunger. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Unknown (1986). Poverty and Hunger. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Unknown (1995). The Color of Hunger. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Chapter Eleven: "Change in Traditional Society" by Elizabeth Jones
When referring to change in the Global South, one is referring to the movement from macro to intermediate analysis. This process of change is from a traditional to a modern society. When a society changes, there is potential for conflict, which can take place in the form of a civil war or a revolution.
A traditional society consists of a low level of urbanization (97% of people live in rural areas), low literacy rates, and high birth and death rates. Because of their rural lifestyle, this society is agrarian or mainly farmland. In this type of society, an extended family exists that can consist of up to 30000 members. From birth, you are assigned an ascriptive value in which society has already prescribed to you your life. A traditional society also consists of very low and little mobility and a low differentiation level where there is not much of an authority framework.
Completely opposite of this society is a modernized society. This type of society has high urbanization, which in effect causes it to be heavily industrialized. A modern society has high literacy rates and low birth and death rates. The nuclear family exists in this society, which consists of the immediate family of four to six members. This society has achievement-oriented values, instead of having things prescribed, one works for his/her own future. Finally, a high level of differentiation exists where there are many areas of authority like religion, military, etc.
Movement away from a traditional society into a modernized society involves a lot of change and tension. Five instruments or forces of this change are the military, leaders, ideology, the bureaucracy, and religion. In explaining these forces of change, Egypt in the Middle East will be used for examples to better understand the changes.
The military intervenes in politics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In fact, it is not uncommon for the military to interfere directly. Originally colonies of Asia, Africa, and Latin America were run by the military, but after colonial powers came they appointed a president or Prime Minister. Coup d'etat is a military takeover of the government. Leaders of such countries change more often through coup d'etat that through elections.
In 1881 the British colonized Egypt. The Britain's excuse for colonization was that they had to take over Egypt because they were defaulting their loan from the Suez Canal, so the British must step in. When the British invaded, however, they didn't call it a colony. Instead they called it a protectorate and claimed they weren't there to colonize Egypt but to protect it. Under British rule Egypt had a capitulation system. Under this system non-Egyptians were exempt from Egyptian law. So if you were a British in Egypt you weren't subject to obey the Egyptian laws. Egypt had a feudalism system even before the British invaded. In this system 2% of the people owned 75% of the land. More than 80% of the people were surfs who worked and lived on the land. The British not only took over Egypt but they also robbed Egypt of its culture. Mummies were stolen by British thieves and robbers and sold to museums. The British stole Egypt's culture and brought it to a place where it did not belong, they stole Egypt's history.
. The main interest Britain had in Egypt was the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal connected the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, which made travel and shipping very easy. It was proposed by a French engineer and built in 1868 when Egypt was still independent. The French and the British go to the Egyptian king and work out a deal over control of the Suez Canal. The French and British say that funding for the canal will be split in 3 ways (1/3 of the canal for each country). At the time Egypt did not have money so the French and British took control over the canal for one hundred years.
By 1936 tensions grew among the countries. The British knew they needed more people in the military so they opened it up not only to the nobility but also to peasants. The Egyptian peasants saw this as an opportunity to step up in the world so many of them joined the military. Among those who joined were Anwar Sadat and Gamal Abdul Nassar. These two great military officers later became Egypt's most beloved leaders. In the mean time, after serving in the military for some time, Egyptian people come back and see their land being ruled by the greedy, gambling King Farouk who cared not for Egypt. To find ways to rid Egypt of British colonization the Egyptian peasants form the free officers, among which were Sadat and Nassar.
In July of 1952 the free officers order their troops together and pan to overthrow the government and take over the British. Anwar Sadat went to the king of Egypt and forced him to sign a treaty that would declare Egypt as a republic instead of being ruled by a king. A few months before this incident Gamal Nassar received a phone call from the United States Embassy. The director of the CIA, Kermit Roosevelt, assures Nassar of United States support to change the government in Egypt. In exchange for help, the United States gave Nassar three million dollars. Nassar used this money to construct the Cairo tower in which a plaque was placed that read "Roosevelt's last erection." Nassar built this tower to deliver a message to say that the United States will not dictate Egypt.
In October of 1953 Nassar comes to take power. In the middle of Nassar's Alexandria Speech four shots were fired in attempt of assassination. Instead of ducking or running for his life, Nassar announced, "I live for Egypt, and I die for Egypt." At this moment Nassar was transformed into a charismatic leader, a leader who is loved by the masses.
This leads into the second force of change, the role of the leaders. Many countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have charismatic leaders. This may be due in part because these countries are always changing in times of crisis, so the people tend to search for a personality to put their faith and trust in. People come to be so in love with their leaders that oftentimes they commit suicide after the death of their beloved leaders. Countries with such charismatic leaders include Cuba, Gana, Indonesia, South Africa, and Haiti.
After coming to office, Nassar passed the Land Reform Act, which stated that no Egyptian should own more than 1000 acres. The law was to go in effect three years from the start, which would give landowners 3 years to get rid of their excess acres. At the end of the three years the government in payments bought excess land that could not be sold with interest over the next 40 years. Nassar paid them for the land in tax value. Nassar then took the excess land and divided it among the peasants. He built a home on each piece of land and told the peasants it was their land. From this Nassar's popularity soared and he became a hero.
The British were still bothersome to Egypt, so Nassar went to his cabinet and passes a law that nationalized the Suez Canal, which meant that the canal now belongs only to Egypt. The French and British were thoroughly unhappy about this decision and attacked Egypt. In the midst of the bombing, Nassar did not run and hide, instead he rode around Egypt and urged his fellow people to stand up for their country and defend themselves. The Soviet Union stepped in and threatened the three countries to stop fighting otherwise the Soviet Union would in turn attack the three countries. By standing up to the British and French, Nassar was instantly turned into a global leader of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
Ideology is a belief system that one holds mainly political beliefs. The predominant ideology in Africa, Asia, and Latin America has been referred to as third world socialism. Third world socialism rejects capitalism and communism because it is believed that neither is good for their country. 3rd world socialism countries reject capitalism because it will continue a system of exploitation of the people, which is referred to as exploitation of the masses by multi-corporations and capitalists. To the Egyptians, capitalism would be like a continuation of feudalism. Leaders reject Communism because it lacks incentive. Communism is a system that basically says people should be equal; no one should own private property, because everyone should own it. There is no incentive to work hard or harder if everything is equal.
Another ideology shared among 3rd world socialist countries is that natural resources belong to the nation. For example, if you buy a house the land is yours but you do not own anything above or below your land. The resources below belong to the nation as a whole, not to one person. Also in 3rd world socialism, public services are nationalized. This means that the government will run, own, and control all public services, some of which include health and education. It is believed that the amount of education one receives should not depend on the amount of money you have. Socialist countries believe education not only serves you, but it must serve society. Under this education system is what is called the five years plan. Here leaders determine what needs will have to be met in five years, so if in five years there will be a need for medical doctors, then they will only admit that many people into college to become medical doctors. Tuition may be free in 3rd world socialist countries, but you lose the choice of studying what you want. Other public services include transportation, utilities, private property, and banking. All of which is government owned in order to emphasize service and not profit.
3rd world socialism has mainly failed because of the failure of the bureaucracy. The bureaucracy is a society in which everything is government owned and operated. The bureaucracy means the civil service, government employees. It is this agency of government that transforms dreams into reality. The bureaucracy is the most significant agent of change in any society.
One problem with bureaucracy is that cultures contradict structures, cultures in society and the structures of bureaucracy don't mesh well. Another problem is corruption. Corruption exists in every society. It even occurred here in Illinois when the government sold truck drivers driver licensees for money which more than likely went straight to campaigns. In Asia, Africa, and Latin America there is often a problem with nepotism in which the people give jobs to friends and relatives. It is assumed that if you can't take care of your own family, how can you take care of a nation. Nepotism is so ramped that a family runs the department of everything. The final problem with bureaucracy is political intervention. This often involves a dumping ground in which jobs are given to the unemployed.
Religion is the fifth and final force of change. Our religious culture in the United States in fact originated from Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Islamic Christianity is the fastest growing religion in our country and by the year 2015 is will be the largest religion on Earth. The Islamic Empire discovered Aristotle, Socrates, chemistry, algebra, everything that is believed to have originated in western culture. It is believed that the west is superior, but without Arabic contributions there would be no Renaissance, no Reformation, and no western culture. Islam contributed tremendously to human civilization, a sad fact that is often overlooked.
The change in the global south was a long and arduous journey. The many instruments of this change changed the global south into the society in which it is today. While every society undergoes change, the south is one that is often overlooked. Western culture is so narcissistic that we forget who made us. Hopefully we will not forget our fellow countries such as Asia, Africa, and Latin America in the future for they have paved the way for western culture.
Chapter Twelve: "The Effects of Religion on Politics: Islam & Catholicism" by Jene' Klostermann
Religion has played a major part of politics in the underdeveloped countries. Because of the beliefs of certain religions, it has been to link religion with politics. The people of these countries have not yet completely separated politics and religion like the developed or more democratic countries have. There is more emphasis on having a state religion than in other countries. This has also led to conflicts with people not joining their religions. The two main religions that play a role in politics are Islam and Catholicism.
Islam is one of the most followed religions in the world, the second largest to be specific. Islam has affected the people of many places around the world. One area where Islamic culture is of great precedent is in the underdeveloped countries. Islam is to Christianity as Muslim is to Christian. One thing that is often confused with being Muslim is that they are Arabic. Not all Arabs are Muslims. Islam is most concentrated in Africa and the Middle East.
Muslims follow their religion through the holy book, the Quran. Within this book, they believe that God wants everyone to live in a community that is governed by the Quran. Leaving the separation of politics and religion not one that is practiced. It is not practiced by the Muslims to be unreceptive to other religions. Islam accepts that others may follow other religions because it was formed from different values and beliefs of Judaism and Christianity.
Islam is split into three types of regimes, the secular state, Islamic state and the Muslim state. The secular state has very little, to no, religious affiliation with politics. There is a separate constitution that governs the country, not the Quran. But in some countries, the constitution may still support belief in God. The Islamic state is governed completely by the Quran and other Islamic Law. This does not separate the government and religion. The Muslim state is a state that is in between secular and Islamic. In this state, they require the head of state has to be a Muslim, but the other political leaders can be non-Muslim.
To be a Muslim there are seven beliefs that one has to have. They are the Allah, His Angels, His Books, His Messengers, The Last Day, and that good and evil is
Predestined by Allah, and the Life after death. Allah means God in Arabic. Every person prays to Allah, it is not specific to Islam. There are also five obligations a Muslim must have. They are as follows: professing faith, observing ritual prayer, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Islam was a revolutionary religion when it came about. Two areas it was revolutionary in were slavery and rights of women. In 610 A.D. Islam banned slavery. Because Muslims follow the Quran strictly, it states that everyone is created equal in every way but one. That one area is faith. The more faithful one is to God, the better human being you are thought to be. The United States had slavery well beyond 610 A.D. as well as other countries. It also took a revolution to abolish slavery.
The other area is the rights that women have. Today in many underdeveloped women lack many rights. They are supposed to be submissive to men and do not have a high status in the community. Islamic culture was the first system to give women the right to inherit land and other property. There were many Prime Ministers of underdeveloped countries that were/are women. For example Turkey, Bangladesh and Pakistan all had a woman prime minister at some point.
Islam is also one of the largest empires in the history of humanities. While in the dark ages, Islam prevailed. They had hospitals and were performing surgery. Aristotle and others were discovering many things and algebra and Arabic numerals were invented. There would have never been a revolution in Europe or a Renaissance if not for Islam. Islam started the first university, which was located in Cairo, Egypt (Al-Azhar University in 910 A.D). The Islam started the first European university in France also.
As Islam is prevalent in the Middle East and Africa, Catholicism is the predominate religion in Latin America. Catholicism is a monolithic religion, meaning that the members believe in one God. In many of the countries it used to be the state religion. The holy book that Catholicism uses is called the Bible. What makes Catholicism part of politics is the hierarchical ecclesiastical structure. The head of the Church is the Pope. Then it goes to the bishops that head each country. Then there are rabbis and cardinals then priests.
The Pope has the overall authority. The more current encyclicals support the political regime and tend to legitimize it. His declarations on matters of faith and morals are flawless. These declarations, though, can create political conflict. Large groups or communities can become entrenched in scriptural passages, which can cause conflicts because they are afraid of social and economic reforms. There are responsibilities that are not clearly defined and therefore lead to tensions between the church and politics.
Another way Catholicism has been involved in politics (in the United States) is the question whether or not prayer should be allowed in school. This was a major issue in that is still not quite settled, although there are laws that say prayer is not allowed in public schools. The government funds these schools that are not allowed to permit prayer in school.
Religious persecution has lead to the Holocaust and many other demonstrations that turn into political issues. These are not exactly particular to religious involvement in politics, but it plays a role in separating the government from politics. If these are not separate, then there is going to be conflicts socially and politically. This can cause political, religious and ethnic slaughtering.
Religions have many influences in politics. Not only in the underdeveloped countries, but right here in the United States. The religions do not rule over the country, but there are religious influences present. Presidential candidates along with other political figures make their platforms on religious beliefs, i.e. abortion.
Two religions that have effects in politics are Islam and Catholicism. Islam has played revolutionary roles in allowing right to women and abolishing slavery. Islam is also a strict religion that could have characteristics of nationalism. Muslims are a tight knit group that follow the Quran and believe that one should be governed by it. Catholicism has interfered with politics mainly because of the hierarchical ecclesiastical structure, but it is easier to separate politics and religion. In the underdeveloped countries, the members of Catholicism and Islam have not separated the government and the religion. They allow for them to be intertwined. This provides areas for conflicts and tensions.
Chapter Thirteen: "What is Islam" by Jenisse Conley
Islam, "The second largest world religion….and growing." (www.religious tolerance.org). As for being known as the youngest religion, it is thought to become the largest religion in about another 15 years. (10/30). This would mean replacing the current largest religion Christianity. This religion is of peace and tolerance, and their Holy book is the Quran. They believe strongly in the internal struggle of good and evil which they call Jihad (11/1). This religion was originated in Mecca (." (www.religious tolerance.org).
Historically the story of Islam was that a messenger of God, Muhammad, received a message from the angel Jibreel Gabriel in Mecca. This message was the first revelation of the Quran. There are many stories that are told about the young Muhammad. Some of these stories told for example; when he was born the sky of Syria lit up, the sacred fire ended, and a palace and churches sank or rolled down. Also when he was young, Angel Gabriel cured his blood clot in his heart by ripping open his chest. He also brought much good luck to his foster family. Muhammad grew up to be a Camel rider, and with this career he was able to learn about many religions. He soon met Angel Gabriel and practiced the Quran ." (www.religious tolerance.org).
Islam can be considered a continuation of Christianity and Judaism. Islam can be considered almost identical to Christianity. There are only a few differences in belief. The first and most is the worship of Jesus. Christians believe and worship Jesus as the 'Son of God'. Whereas, Jesus was accepted as the 'divine prophet of God' in the Islam religion (11/3). They are all considered Abrahamic religions. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam come from descendents of Abraham. They all also worship only one Lord their God (11/1). Islam follow the story told that Christ never dies on the cross. They believe that in that time of arresting Jesus they arrested the wrong man who looked like him. So to them, when he was seen three days later he had never died. I guess you could say they think 'Christians got a little confused'. Although according to Islam, Jesus will be sitting at the right hand of God on judgement day (11/3). Jesus was the Messiah who cured people of illness and had a 'miracle birth' . This is believed by both Islam and Christians, not Judaism (." (www.religious tolerance.org). Although Islam believes Original Sin was inherited from Adam and Eve. They also believe in paradise and hell." (www.religious tolerance.org).
The Islam religion has many practices. Like Judaism, Islamic followers (Muslims) do not eat pork. A good Muslim does not drink alcohol (10/31) or gamble" , Muslims recite the shahadah, give 2.5% charity tax, and fast during Ramadan (www.religious tolerance.org). They say prayers five times a day, and like Christianity and Judaism (Church and Temple), they go to the Mosque once a week. Their Holy day is Friday, whereas Christians is Sunday, and Judaism is Saturday. When a Muslim prays they face Mecca, and their Mosque's also face this way. Muslims are allowed to work on their Holy Day, which is usually a half day after worship. When a student is in a school not Islamic, they must leave class to pray at there given hours. Some of these practices were alternated by Muhammad to 'fit the environment'(11/1).
The Ramadan is practiced by Muslims once a year on a Lunar Calendar. This is the time where the Islamic religion believes that Muhammad received the first revelation of the Quran. During this Muslim's learn to identify hunger. They fast all day without food, drink, smoking, sex, etc. This makes them believe to be better servants of God. At night once the sunsets, the Muslims are allowed to eat and drink, etc. It is a huge celebration after a day of suffering. Schools and work seem to make half days, and the cities work around Ramadan. In many cases Muslims go home early and sleep off the exhausting hunger and thirst, so they can survive the month of fasting. This is the month you do not want to go tour the cities because it is convenience. by the Muslims and their practice (11/1).
There are many biases along with the Islamic Religion. One of the strongest ones would be the American media and relating Muslims to be Terrorists. When most attacks are from ourselves, or acts of patriotism from other countries. It has nothing to do with the Islamic religion. Another major confusion is that Muslims are Arabic, when in fact seven out of eight Muslims are not Arabic. For example from class, Indonesia is the most popular Islamic country. This is South East Asia, and they are not (most likely) Arab. When someone talks about a Muslim, we think that there is a man with a big crazy nose, and a towel on his head. When in fact a towel on the head is more of a fashion statement and a cultural action then a religious one.
The word Allah is also misinterpreted by our uneducated media. They make it seem as if Allah is some great foreign God praised by these Muslims, when if fact, Allah in Arabic means God. If you are Christian, and you go to mass that speaks Arabic, you will also worship Allah. It is the same God as the rest of the religions. There is nothing bad or mysterious. Some people also believe or were told that Muslims killed Christians. This is misunderstood in most situations because Christians were known to kill Muslims. Islam has always protected Christians and Jews because they are 'people of the book.' In the time of World War 2 many Muslims protected the Jews from Hitler and his army. Muslims respect those who follow God, not criticize their differences (10/31).
Islam was a very revolutionary religion. There were many beliefs that were developed in this religion way before they were brought to attention by the rest of the world. This includes women and equality, and banned slavery. The Quran totally banned slavery in about 610 AD It explained that people are not different unless they are more faithful. The more faithful you are the better the person you are. There is absolutely no such think as a superior race in Islam. This is just some of the ideas brought to attention first by Islamic cultures, not the Western Countries. The other example I brought up was women. The Islamic religion did allow women rights, way before the Western Countries realized. The only countries that 'suppress' women are the poor countries, not the Islamic religion. Some examples given in class were how Turkey, Pakistan, and Bangladesh all had women as Prime Ministers. Another example is that Iran has already had a women Vice President, and the United States has not had a women at that level of status yet. So where are the Western Countries like the United States to talk?(11/3)
There has been a lot of corruption of our knowledge in the history of the Islamic Religion. For instance: the Arabic number system. In class we discussed where we would be with only the Greek numerals. There would be no existence of Aristotle and his findings. We wouldn't have decimal's, etc. This was a very significant contribution to toadies current society. Another example would be University's. We were taught by European historians that France had built the first University. Where in fact Cairo, Egypt built there first University in 910 AD. Hospitals were also being built at the time by Islam's while the Western Countries were in there Dark Ages. Europeans were still involved in Paganism and witch craft medicine. Education had failed because of patriotism in Western societies (11/3).
The Islam religion is very powerful, and has been much of a success story. It has now established one of the largest empires in history, and it is continuing to spread and grow. It is unfortunate such a great thing is unknown and still so corrupted. Hopefully the Western Countries and the Media will become educated enough to learn the truth someday soon! (11/3)
Bibliography
Class Sessions in POS140: 10/30, 11/1, 11/3
www.religious tolerance.org

Designed by: Khalil M. Marrar. Updated on February 16, 2000.

E-mail comments, suggestions and corrections to webmaster or Dr. Nassar.