Dr. Jamal Nassar 

Political Science, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois 61790-4600 USA

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The Illinois State University
Normal, Illinois

Khalil M. Marrar
Editor

Table of Contents

Preface by Khalil M. Marrar………………………………………………………………3
Section I: Introduction
Chapter 1 by Kristi Georgy…………………….………………………………………….4
Chapter 2 by Amy Edwards……………………………………………………………….8
Chapter 3 by Lisa Marie Davis…………………………………………………………..14
Section II: Women and Politics
Chapter 4 by Teresa Jones……………………………………………………………….19
Chapter 5 by Melissa Coe………………………………………………………………..23
Chapter 6 by Stephanie Carenback………………………………………………………28
Section III: Global Inequalities
Chapter 7 by Patrick Vance……………………………….……………………………..33
Chapter 8 by Sara Hahn………………………….………………………………………38
Chapter 9 by Elizabeth Acker……………………………………………………………43
Chapter 10 by Morgan Chastain Pytynia-Klein….………………………………………48
Section IV: Agents of Change
Chapter 11 by April Rodia………………………………………………………………56
Chapter 12 by Jamie Bagnall……………………………………………………………61
Chapter 13 by Jennifer Kindred…………………………………………………………67

Preface
By Khalil M. Marrar

The following chapters have been selected from essays written by students just like your selves. All entries are based on materials and knowledge gained from class lectures and resources or outside research. Whenever possible, the thoughts and ideas contained in the following essays were left in original form, although, minor changes were made in order to correct facts and statistics or grammar and spelling. All of the authors were enrolled in Professor Jamal Nassar's Political Science 140, a course on the Politics of Africa, Asia and Latin America, in the Spring Semester of 2000. While the following chapters do not attempt to encompass all of the diverse ideas presented in the course, they serve as a seminal guide to important issues and concepts discussed during course by students and professor. Moreover, the following entries present the reader with the manner in which other students think about the various issues in the "post-colonial" politics of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Since all of the enclosed chapters convey opinions and ideas, they are as are all writings on politics, open to debate, discussion and disagreement. The editor wishes to express his utmost gratitude and congratulations to all students that have submitted an entry in general, and to the authors of the enclosed chapters in particular.

Khalil M. Marrar, Editor
Normal, Illinois
September 2000

Section I: Introduction
Chapter 1
"Forms of Government"
By Kristi Georgy

Government plays an important role in the lives of all people. The term government is defined as the mechanism that people employ to protect themselves. As Americans, we know that we live under a democratic government. However, many Americans are unfamiliar with other forms of government. The governmental structure of a country is influenced by social, economic, and political factors. Since government is affected by these three factors, one can guess that many different forms of government exist.
A government can either be classified as a monarchy or a republic. A monarchy has a monarch, who is a titled King or Queen. This means that the royal family rules it. A person becomes a monarch by heredity. This means people who live in a monarchy have no say in who their monarch will be. Simply, to become a King and/or Queen of a monarchial government is an accident of birth.
The monarchy has three different forms of government that fall underneath it. The first form is that of absolute monarchy, where the King or Queen has complete power over the country. Since in an absolute monarchy the destiny of the country is in the hands of the King or Queen, the people have absolutely no say in what happens to their country. The King or Queen does whatever he/she wants and does not listen to anyone. Countries possessing the form of absolute monarchial government are Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
A second type of monarchy is constitutional. A constitutional monarch has power, however this power is defined in a written constitution. This means that the King and/or Queen have power over the country they rule, but not complete power. Since the constitutional monarchy's power is limited and imprinted on a written constitution, this allows for some input from the country's people. However, if the monarch does not abide by the constitution he/she will face consequences. Examples of constitutional monarchies are Spain, Sweden, and Norway.
The third type of monarchy is the limited monarchy. The powers of the King and/or Queen in a limited monarchy are limited to ceremonial functions only. Since their powers are only limited to ceremonial functions another form of governmental apparatus exists higher than the King and/or Queen. Because of this, the King or Queen is only a public figurehead. An example of a limited monarchy is the United Kingdom, which is currently led by Queen Elizabeth II. Considering a person becomes a monarch by heredity, when Queen Elizabeth is no longer the monarch, her son Charles is heir to the position. In the United Kingdom, Parliament makes up the actual laws. Since Queen Elizabeth cannot interfere with governmental policies and only has power in ceremonial functions, she is an example of a limited monarch.
After discussing the three different types of monarchies, one can realize they are very different but also have one thing in common. All three types of monarchies have a titled monarch, which makes them similar. The next form of government is called a Republic. A Republic is defined as any country that does not have a King and/or Queen. Three examples include The United States of America, Cuba, and Iraq.
The Republican form of government also has three different types of government that fall underneath of it. The first type is dictatorship. A dictatorship is a form of government where one man controls all the powers. Dictatorship is similar to absolute monarchy, except in an absolute monarchy the ruler is a monarch but in a dictatorship the ruler is a dictator. Another difference between an absolute monarchy and a dictatorship is that a dictator is not born into leadership. A dictator can get control of the government in many ways. The main way a dictator gets control is through force. Since a government is a very powerful thing, a dictator who has control over his government is a very powerful figure. Considering our government has control over many parts of our life, if the wrong person becomes a dictator, many things can go bad.
A second type of republic is an oligarchy. An oligarchy is rule by the few. In an oligarchy only members of a party can have power over the country. The outcome of an oligarchy depends on whether or not the rulers pay attention to their people's best interests. An example of an oligarchy is when South Africa operated under Apartheid, where all rulers were white and they possessed all the power, rights, and privileges. Whites ruled South Africa, although 90% of its population is black. The system of feudalism is another example of an oligarchy, where the division of power was based on class, which was completely opposite to the actual numbers of people in each group.
The third and final type of republic is democracy. Democracy is based on the idea of rule by the people. The majority rules the democracy and people get to have a say in their government. People voice their opinions through democratic elections and also get to vote on rules and rulers of their country. Democracies have become a strong and stable form of government because people do not let others rule their lives; instead they actually get to voice their opinions. The United States is an example of democracy. Because people see the effects this form of government has on the people of the United States, the idea of democracy is becoming widely spread in developing countries.
Considering we live in a country where we can voice our opinions and be active in decision making, it is important to be as active in our government as possible. Ways of being active include voting, attending governmental meetings, and by keeping up with what is happening around us. Since the idea of democracy is spreading fast throughout developing countries, we can only hope that one-day everyone in the world will have a say in his/her government and not be controlled by a monarch.

Chapter 2
"Exploring Colonialism, Neocolonialism and Nationalism"
By Amy Edwards

Chapter 2 discusses the concepts of colonialism, neocolonialism, and nationalism. First, we start with colonialism, which is somewhat of a difficult term to define. In earlier years, the term colonialism described a particular country's foreign settlements or colonies. When talking about the expansion of control or power by a particular state or territory, the term imperialism is used interchangeably. Now that the world has evolved, both the terms colonialism and imperialism carry negative connotation or anti-Western bias as the book states. In actuality, colonialism and imperialism have, to some extent, different meanings. Colonialism is a relationship in which groups of people that are located, or reside in a particular country are subject to the authority or control of another country besides their own. For example, it would be as if us Americans were under complete control of the Canadians. On the other hand, imperialism is the act of holding colonies or dependencies. Another important term that is associated with this section is neocolonialism, which is the process by which rich, powerful, and developed states use economic, political, or other informal means to exert pressure on the poor, less powerful, underdeveloped states.
The Westerners, as arrogant as they are, found that colonialism offered them an opportunity to bring the "backward" Other World in to the light of the modern age. In other words, the leaders of the Western societies and cultures felt that they would be able to extend their benefits of having a Western civilization to the rest of the world that were not as fortunate. Of course, it did not sound as nice as it is stated above. The members of the Other world were described as the "black, brown, and yellow brothers." Colonialism was seen as implying some form of honor, but today that no longer holds true.
The history of colonialism started many years ago. The Western society has been the dominant power holder and enforcer of colonialism for the majority of the last 600 years. It is important to state that it is not only the Western societies that use the concept of colonialism within their societies, but rather, most of the world's peoples have been a part of it as well. When the concept of colonialism first evolved, Portugal and Spain were chief European participants in the Western societies. In 1781 at Yorktown, Virginia, the American rebels finally gained independence from the British. It was at this time that the first "phase" of Western colonialism ended. The reason why dealt with the fact that many people in England and other areas of Europe found that the American colonies were no longer worth losing lives, energy, and efforts to keep them. A new phase, or second phase evolved around the time of the industrial revolution (2nd half of the nineteenth century). Markets and minerals that would lead to a great increase in income drove the Europeans to establish new colonies throughout the other world. It was soon found that the concept of traditional colonialism was diminishing once the twentieth century began. If one were trying to come up with a description of the people that were under the rule of colonialism, they would be described as being both non-Western and non-white; both that were accidental by birth, not by choice.
Motives for colonialism include religion, cultural expansion, economic gain, strategic value, surplus population, and prestige. Religious and cultural motives were grouped together. There was a strong desire to spread the Christian faith, and what better way to do it than by establishing colonies in the Other World that seemed to be so easily influenced. Cultural motivation was also important. This affected not only the colonizers themselves, but those who were being colonized. For example, the French, along with the English, Italians, and Spanish felt that their individual languages, cultures, and religions should be seen as a cultural "gifts" and it is those gifts that they gave to the colonies that were once located along the North African coast.
Economic colonialism was closely linked with religious and cultural colonialism. Colonies were used for the profitable import and export of goods by the mother country. Notice once again that money plays a huge role in colonialism. Time in history, location, and the conditions within the colony decided on how profitable a particular colony was, or would soon become. Reasons why colonies were so desirable economically for their particular mother countries were the food, minerals, and human labor that could be produced at any given time. These reasons had the potential of being traded to other mother countries for a larger profit or in a sense, a better "deal."
Strategic motives included the many uses of strategic colonies. Strategic colonies provided a defense from major colonies, a place to refuel or repair when at war. For example, during WWII, the Canary Islands were used as a strategic colony. It provided the "out" that Churchill might have needed if any part of his plan went wrong. Strategic colonies were also established as a defense for mother countries, along with helping the nation that established them gain a balance of power. One of the major downfalls of strategic colonies is their difficulty to deal with during the time of decolonization. Even though it seems as if many strategic colonies wish to be free from their binding mother countries, many choose to stay rather than separate.
Colonies have provided, at different times in history, an exit for a mother country's surplus population. Having a surplus population motive is very rarely used as the primary reason for establishing colonies. Besides surplus population motives, prestige motives were often used. Colonies were established and maintained for the sole purpose of looking better than the rest. Looking at the colonies that remain throughout the world seems pointless to keep; yet, they are kept for the sole purpose of prestige.
The legacy of colonialism includes government, education, economics, health, and stability. Without a strong government, the transfer from a colony to an independent state of individuals was not easy. Coup d'état, corruption, and dictatorships, rather than the Western-styled democracy were considered prime legacies of colonialism. Modern education was seen as being a benefit of colonialism. Europe and America had established schools of high standards, in which the Other World students fled to for a better education. Colonialism offered the Other World the opportunity to bring better schools to their area, saving them the long journey to either Europe or America. On an economic standpoint, the Other World lacked the strong agricultural advantage that the strong mother countries had. Other World agriculture was tailored to the needs and the trade that the mother countries looked for, rather than growing what suited the needs of Other World farmers. Health care over the past few decades has been improving in the Other World, but there are not enough clinics to go around. The demand for sufficient healthcare is on the rise, and it is the lack of available clinics and space that is keeping the Other World behind. A benefit of the current rise in healthcare in the Other World includes longer life spans of adults, and a lowered infant mortality rate. One of the setbacks for colonialism is the lack of inner stability in former colonies. Colonialism had high demands, and the colonies did not have the public support to keep them afloat. The postcolonial world currently lacks sufficient economic, social, and or political essentials that are necessary to produce and maintain stable governments.
Neocolonialism's focus is to have one country's power exerted over that of a lesser power in an indirect manner. There is a strong interaction between that of the dominant nation's banking system, businesses, culture, and military leaders, with the Other World elites. Due to this type of interaction, the Other World has become a dumping ground and market for consumer goods and military hardware from the developed world. Neocolonialism is characterized by its cultural, political, economic, and military dominance. Larger and more powerful cultures of the world have spread their specific cultures to the Other World via radio, television, newspapers, and other forms of sound bites and mass media. Political dominators have offered some of their money, services, and support to those unstable systems of the Other World as long as it is kept on the down low. If news spread of these types of interactions, it would prove to be fatal to both the political dominators that are trying to help, and to the Other World countries that so desperately need their help. The main reason for economic domination is none other than profit and money. People from the Other World have found that the impact of neocolonialism from an economic point of view has hurt them more than it has helped. Money is tight in the Other World, yet the economic dominators find a way to get every penny. Military domination speaks for itself. Since the Other World is highly unstable in many ways, the environment that they live in becomes hostile, and the military is the only object that they can use to keep some sort of order.
Nationalism is a completely Western concept. Nationalism is that proud feeling that one has for their specific nation or nation-state. Those colonies that broke away from their respective mother countries felt the need to create a culture identity of their own, and not of their mother country. Some of the ways that they did this include the creation of a national anthem, a flag, and traditions that were solely tied to their specific nation-state.
Once colonies were freed from their specific mother countries, it was up to them to create an identity that would represent only them. These newly established nation-states were created from the outcomes of both colonialism and neocolonialism. Even though nationalism is a new concept, it will grow with age to be something that everyone will be proud of. The Other World has come a long way since the beginning of colonialism, and will continue to improve as time passes. A nation is something that you should and can be proud of, it is just up to you to make it into something that you can find a piece of yourself in.

Chapter 3
"Nationalism"
By Lisa Marie Davis

Nationalism can be described as a feeling of pride and belonging among a group of people. Nationalism is also a feeling of attachment and love to a particular group's country or nation-state. While Nationalism may seem like a wonderful and positive thing, it does not always conclude happily. In fact, when Nationalism is taken to the extremes, it often results in many negative feelings, often causing conflict between countries or within a country. Regardless of its positives and negatives, Nationalism has and continues to exist in countries around the world and is an extremely important part in the bond that exists among citizens of one country and the ties that connect one country to another.
Even though Nationalism is a feeling that can exist anywhere, there are certain factors that bond a country together. Probably the most obvious factor that bonds a group of people is their common territory. Common territory, that is people sharing a common or close territory, seem to share a large bond, which is created from their mutual feelings for the love and care for their land.
Another factor of Nationalism, which seems to bond people together, is the idea of common language. People who speak the same language are more likely to be closer than whose languages differ. Common language seems to be an extremely important factor, seeing that it allows people to communicate with one another. This idea seems to create a connection among people, opening communication lines resulting in the sharing and transferring of ideas. Like language, common culture among a group or groups of people seems to bring people closer. In general, it seems that people with similar beliefs, religions, or traditions tend to have a bond to one another. This bond or similarity shared by a group of people creates similar feelings and ideas towards their particular country.
The final factor that seems to create a connection among groups of people, resulting in Nationalism is common enemies. It is extremely important for a country to have a common enemy with another country or countries. Having a common enemy creates two or more groups of people, within different nation-states feeling a certain amount of fear towards a particular country, which in turn keeps those sharing a common enemy united. Even though these four bonds of Nationalism can be present in any country, it is not necessary to have all four factors in existence to have Nationalism present. One bond alone can work to unite people, creating a strong sense of pride for their country or nation-state.
In addition to the many bonds of Nationalism, there are many symbols of Nationalism, which seem to connect a person to her/his country. A common and important symbol found in countries around the world is the flag. The flag, to many, stands for their particular country and is for the most part well respected by the members or citizens of a country. In fact, many take such great pride in their flag and what it stands for that they are willing to kill and die for their flag.
Another common symbol of Nationalism is a national anthem. A nation's anthem seems to portray the idea that their nation/country is best. Due to this, it seems that a nation's pride towards their country is often expressed with great dignity through their national anthem. This seems to be a common and honored tradition around the globe, seeing that all nations, even if they do not possess a country, have a national anthem. Historical sites or monuments that exist in a nation can also represent Nationalism. Historical sites that exist within a country often symbolize a certain amount of patriotism to that particular country, representing an important historical event in that nation's past.
The final symbols that may often exist, representing Nationalism are popular slogans or legends. Slogans are often a powerful statement about a particular country that citizens say with a great deal of pride. A legend is often a story of the past sometimes including historical or political leaders that speaks of stories representing the wonderfulness of a particular country. While these four symbols may mean more to some than others, they all represent and express a certain amount of pride that exists among the citizens of a nation or country, therefore portraying the idea of Nationalism.
Since Nationalism is extremely important to each individual nation, the feeling of attachment and love for one's country can become so great that it often results in negative consequences. Perhaps the most obvious and important consequence of Nationalism is the exaggerated feeling that "Our Country is Best". Through this, each nation-state tends to become the center of its own universe, creating a tremendous feeling of superiority over all other countries. As a result of this, it seems countries tend to measure others by their own standards, which can cause a great deal of conflict between countries.
The second consequence of Nationalism, which also results from Nationalism being taken to the extreme, is racism. Racism, resulting from Nationalism, expresses the idea that some are better than others, which leads to the issue of certain nations feeling superior over others. There have been many examples in the past when racism, caused by Nationalism, leads one nation's power and superiority to become so out of hand that there is actually an elimination of a great amount of people from an opposing and often weaker nation. One well-known example of this can be seen when slavery took place in the United States. African Americans were forced to serve the "superior race". They were treated cruelly and inhumanely, due to European authority over them. In fact the punishment to the African Americans was so great, that American slave owners would exterminate their slaves if they did not behave properly or work to their standards. Another terrible example of racism resulting in one nation overpowering another was seen in Nazi Germany under Hitler's rule. This was such an extreme case that anyone who was not a member of his race or nation was punished severely. Over 11 million people were eliminated due to the Nazi's feeling superiority over everyone. Their area of concentration was to eliminate the Jewish population, a population that lost a great number of lives.
Although Nationalism seems to exist in one way or another in each country or nation-state around the world, it was originally known as or considered to be a Western idea. However, as in many ideas that have been adapted by other countries, Nationalism was also passed on. This in turn led to the idea of Nationalism traveling into many Other World countries that were found in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. A large part of this seemed to have taken place in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries when many nationalists led movements in these countries promoting the idea of Nationalism.
Whether Nationalism is viewed as a positive or negative idea that exists throughout our world today, it is an extremely important part of the relationships that exists between countries around the world and among citizens of individual countries. Nationalism strengthens the bonds of citizens within a country by producing common bonds that unite them to believe in similar things. The pride that individuals feel for their country is often so strong that it can bring together a large group or perhaps even an entire country due to the similarities they share. Not only does Nationalism have the power to unite citizens within their own country, but as previously explained, common similarities, more specifically common enemies, have a way of uniting countries to one another, even when they are half way around the world.
Despite the positive results of Nationalism, the negative effects, may be few, but seem to be extremely hateful. Nationalism, when kept at a reasonable level, can benefit many, however once it exceeds that reasonable level, the lives of many could be at risk. As seen through our world's history there have been many cases where one country's feeling of pride, turned into superiority over another country. Regardless of how strong a country or nation-state's pride is for their territory or land; their feelings should never lead to such extremities that result in punishment or extermination of another nation.
In conclusion, it seems that Nationalism can be viewed as both a positive and negative idea, which can often be determined by each individual's feelings of Nationalism and how it is portrayed in their individual country. It seems that Nationalism has the ability to positively unite individuals when it is handled at a level not exceeding those that could result in negative feelings or actions toward another country. However, Nationalism, even though it is defined as a feeling of attachment and love towards a particular country or nation-state, is most likely to be defined on an individual basis, based on the views and feeling of a particular individual or nation-state.

Section II: Women and Politics
Chapter 4
"Women and Development"
By Teresa Jones

For many years, scholars, Third World governments and many other people of the world have been insensible to the role of women in the development process. Issues of women concerning political and economic change have received very little attention. However, within the past two to three decades, two factors have been responsible for a new understanding of women in developing nations. One of these factors is the surfacing of gender-related social science research. Another factor is the realization by policy makers that women play a vital role in the modernization process.
Women in the Third World-and throughout the world in general-are usually devalued and therefore are forced to work in particular occupations. The majority of women work in the "informal sector." In the Far East and Southeast Asia, women who work in industry tend to work in low-wage industries like apparel and electronics. However, in other places such as Mexico and the Caribbean, women tend to work in assembly plants. Even professional Third World women are over represented in traditionally "nurturing" professions such as nursing and teaching.
Women of the Third World are disadvantaged in many ways. Unequal access to education is just one other reason that Third World women are forced to lead lives that are of low status and large families. Even though some women are illiterate, they still manage to make exceptional contributions to improve their lives, as well as the lives of other women. Women and girls often times are not allowed to obtain an education because they are not allowed to attend school. In the Third World women do not inherit like men do. Often times, women do not get what they are entitled to. Not only are they not given their inheritance, but also many times women are not even allowed to work. Because women are often times not allowed to receive an education or work, women and children suffer the most from poverty.
Colonial administrators in Africa and Asia were often less reasonable in their treatment of women than were traditional societies. There was a time when women could serve as chiefs or hold other important political positions. However, this was when women had some influence over traditional leaders. This influence declined when colonial rule was introduced in the 19th century, when Victorian England and other European societies had restricted views of women's roles. The reason women's influence changed was because Colonial administrators viewed politics as a "man's concern."
Urbanization forced women to take labor-insensitive jobs. Since women were usually dependent on their husbands and owned less of the family's property, women had to migrate to the city, instead of living in the country. If men migrated to the city, as opposed to women, they would have greater access to education and to higher paying jobs. Women, however, are the majority of migrants from the countryside to the city, where they have no other option but to accept low wages.
Throughout the Third world, women are not given the same educational opportunities as men. This lack of opportunities in turn, limits their possibilities to find work. Because of the lack of occupational opportunities available to women, some women resort to prostitution to support themselves as well as their children. The same prejudices and traditions that negatively affect women's socioeconomic position also disadvantage them politically. Aside from these prejudices, cultural values have also negatively affected women's participation in the political system. Social class is also a major issue with women's political involvement.
One way women have been able to influence Third World politics is through grass-roots levels. Grass-roots levels allow women to have some power in politics through forming their own groups or organizations, including neighborhood and community-based groups, which allow women to participate in leadership positions that may be lacking at the national or regional level. Most of these organizations' agendas are of much interest to women. For example, women are usually particularly interested in housing, health care, clean drinking water, and child welfare. Since women are usually interested in these issues, many women who have no political interest are still drawn to these groups. Women are attracted to these groups simply because issues such as these are relevant to their lives.
Women's movements in Third World nations incorporate three types of political alignments. The first includes feminists, usually form middle or upper middle class families, and including many professional women. Second, neighborhood organizations represent women from the city slum area. Because of the severe economic crisis, self-help groups were formed for activities like communal kitchens and infant nutrition centers. The last organizations sought to stop the government and other groups from violating human rights.
All throughout the world women are disproportionately represented in political leadership positions. However, it seems that most times when women are in political leadership positions they seem to have something do with health and education. Most women involve themselves in such areas and further their national development among familial, industrial and cultural lines.

Chapter 5
"The Role of Women in Third World Countries"
By Melissa Coe

Since the times of the earliest civilizations, there seemed to always be a definite barrier between the sexes. Females have always been portrayed as a submissive, unknowing figure depending on the strength of her male counterpart. This portrayal of women may have not been intentional, such as the case of Adam and Eve. Eve was created from the rib of Adam. Man was created in the image of God; woman was created in the image of man. As we all know, the story goes that Eve was not strong enough to resist the temptation of the Forbidden Garden. Because of this, Eve and Adam were banished from Paradise. This occurred because Eve was not as strong as Adam. This may not be the proper interpretation, but it provides an appropriate example of early inequality.
Ancient Greek literature also provides a glimpse into early civilizations and how Greeks valued the sexes. Women were not allowed to own land and were often questioned or brushed aside in indifference. Unfortunately, changes in women's status have only come about in the past 100 years and we still have much further to go. Especially in the countries were development and change come at a slower pace. The differences of men and women are noticeable in comparison of development, culture, religion and politics.
Coming from a society and generation where woman is both mom and employee, it seemed hard to believe that there were still places in the world that devalued women; even though women are important for all economies. Not just the economy, but in the whole social structure. Ironically, in many societies, a woman's only importance in life lies in taking care of her children, home and husband. Women are not shown that they can participate and hold a valuable opinion in politics and the decisions that affect their lives.
When learning about women and their role in today's third world countries, it seemed that one of the most important factors, was the level of development of one's country. Obviously, the United States, United Kingdom and other such countries are prime examples of highly developed nations. In these countries, the roles of women are almost equal to those of men. Women are allowed to have a job and family, own property, hold high positions in politics, and have an equal part in the decisions of government. We still deal with injustices of unequal pay for equal work and basic issues like paid maternity leave, male chauvinism and sexual harassment. With these crosses to bare, it still pales in comparison to the treatment of women in underdeveloped societies. These women are not allowed the amount of freedom and choices that women in more privileged countries take for granted. Their roles in the communities are to take care of the children and their homes. If a woman is allowed to work, it is in a gender specific area. Meaning, they are relegated to the small agricultural jobs men won't bother with. Those who do find industrial work are in for low income, labor-intensive work under extreme working conditions. Although wages are overall meager, women's wages are still less than what men make doing the same work. The mentality seems to be women will speak when spoken to, and even then, what they say will most likely be ignored. Women are second-class citizens and are treated so. However, the women of these countries have had amazing influence in the modernization and development in their societies. They have inspired movements for woman's empowerment and equality. Literature and scholars are portraying underprivileged women as having tremendous influence on the new economic systems being implemented. It seems these less fortunate women are taking a cue from their modernized counterpart. I believe these women are seeing images of American women and how we are fighting for our own equalities. They see how much we have accomplished and want the same for themselves and their daughters. Women are striving for political power and status to make a difference in their social standings.
The cultures of these countries are also a factor in women's standing. Many of these countries and cultures have been around for hundreds of years. It is hard to overcome centuries of traditions and uprooted beliefs that are carried out in everyday life.
Some of these societies have begun from the notion of male dominance and female submission. It is hard to ask a nation to forget what they have lived with and change their whole social structure. America is a "young" country in comparison to the "old" countries. America built up it's own culture and beliefs. We may have started out as a nation who valued only white males, but our foremothers gathered up enough strength and courage to make a change. It may have taken a couple of centuries, but we have persevered. This is what we are beginning to see in the underprivileged countries of today. Women are staring to rally and gain support from each other. Fortunately, these women are not starting out alone. They have the support and experience from women who have been on the forefront of the feminist movement. They are being taught how important they are to their community, both economically and politically.
Culture and religion are usually complimentary. They are both intertwined with each other and are a main component of how a group identifies itself. Some of the dominant religions of the third world countries are Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity. The Islamic religion is practicing male domination to this day. The Islamic religion was first founded with the intentions of equality of women. Women were permitted to own land and receive inheritance for the first time in history. However, with time, the Islamic societies fell behind and became traditional societies. Women today are not to be seen or heard and there place is in the home. If they are to venture out of the home, they must be covered from head to toe and careful of their actions, as to not offend any men. Their religion is so imbedded into the culture and way of life, that there is no way to separate them. Christianity also has its gender issues. Besides the previous example of Adam and Eve, women are not aloud to spread the word of God. They are relegated to being nuns and perpetuating God's work. Although this itself is still a noble way of life, it puts up a barrier that is impermeable by women. This just reiterates the position of women in both religion and social setting.
Most women in the underdeveloped countries are from a poor, lower class system. These women do not have access to education or other chances to branch out. Without the education needed to comprehend world issues, the women are not equipped to handle the responsibilities of being active members of government. The governments of these countries rarely allow active participation from any one, never mind a woman. However, with the modernization wave that is sweeping under developed countries, more democratic factions are replacing governments. They are allowing for more opportunities for everyone to participate. This does vary from country to country, but the aspirations of the women are uniform. At this point in time, women make up a small percent of active political leaders, but this is changing. With the widespread reform of developing countries, more and more women are being reached and tapped by the feminist movement. This movement may be late in comparison, but it is happening and will continue to happen until everyone is participating in their community and country.
Women in third world countries have overcome many hardships, and they still have more to go. Not only do they have gender issues, but also social class issues. Hopefully, with more time and perseverance, these women can and will overcome.

Chapter 6
"Suffering Women"
By Stephanie Carenback

Women throughout the world, especially in certain countries are treated horribly. They have to follow rules and do not think for themselves. Iran's Islamic Revolution played a significant role in establishing an identity for all Iranian women. Not only in Iran, but women suffer throughout the world due to their living status. They suffer by men, children, and the places where they live. They are forced in many countries to be the caregiver because that is what women are supposed to do. We have learned that in Iran, women suffered a great deal.
Without Ayatollah Khomeini Iranian women's lives could differ greatly from what they are now. Khomeini led the Revolution with his power and enforced strict laws and regulations. These laws created a transformation for the women of Iran.
Tender, affectionate, loving, and nurturing usually comes to mind when people think of mothers. Women are supposed to be mothers and these are the qualities that every woman or mother should have. There is a lot of preparation and work in being a successful mother who has these qualities. Many stereotypes go along with the title and territory of being a mother. Unfortunately, women were commanded by their husbands, or other men to do jobs and to take care of the household. These women sacrificed almost everything for their family, their husbands who were very authoritative and demanding, and also their children that the couple conceived. These women of Iran fought for their rights for sixteen years to stay out of the home, stop being unprivileged, and to finally be recognized.
In 1979, a revolution in Iran succeeded in bringing hope to women for gender equality. Women rose in large numbers against the Shah and gave their support to the revolution so their choices would be expanded (Eshghipour 90). They did not deserve the treatment that they were receiving from the Iranian men. No woman deserves to get treated the way they get treated. They are treated horribly in many countries.
"Women came together to protest such sexist attitudes as expressed by the Shah in 1973 when Ayatollah Khomeini said, 'A woman is important in a man's life only if she is beautiful and charming…You are equal to a man in the eyes of the law, but excuse me for saying so, you are certainly not equal [to a man] in your capabilities'" (Marshall 1).

Women were portrayed as not being equal to men, and they were commanded to take care of the family and follow the rules that were given by their husbands or men. They were subject to many restrictions. They were subjugated and restrained to the confines of their homes. "In every aspect of their lives, women were discriminated against and anticipated to perform their "duties" as wife and mother" (Eshghipour 94). These women were expected to remain obedient to men and stay silent in their residence (Sanders 84). "A woman is completely at service of her husband, and her social activities are conditional upon her husband's permission" (Eshghipour 102). According to Tayana Marshall in "Iranian Revolution Turned Against Women Who Supported It," "In Iran, women are not allowed to leave unless their husbands give them permission" (1). It is ridiculous that women do not seem to have their own minds. They have to follow what men say. It seems to be that the men are always the ones who are put in charge or have all the power. The men were in power due to their strong desire for their family traditions to be upheld.
In Iran the distinction and unity of the family are more substantial than all other social bonds. The father or husband is the head of the family and has a considerable amount of authority and dominance in all the decisions that affect the family (Visual Geography Series 42-43). Therefore, the integrity of the family rests with the woman. In many countries this is the case. Everyone hopes to have a home that provides security and comfort. This is a woman's supposed job. "Woman is the symbol of divine beauty. She emanates mercy and kindness and with the help of these serene qualities establishes a good, stable family." The goal of a man is to have a united environment for his family and through the forgiveness, kindness, and sacrifice for the family by the mother; she is the one to strengthen the bonds between the family members (The Embassy of the Islamic Republic).
Women have done so much for their families and have overcome many barriers over the years. They have truly proven that they would never give in to any crisis in the future or give up on their family even though they are commanded on what they have to do. The contribution to the culture and civilization of the world by women is very significant. These women have experienced a great deal of history and from their experience they will only come up ahead. "These women will be the leaders who will unite the country and their families in the struggle to achieve true equality" (Eshghipour 137).
No matter what country you are in, women seem to be both exploited and desired by the men in society. Before the Revolution women were treated with dignity and respect. Women thought the Revolution would only bring about change in a positive manner, when in actuality it did nothing, but set them further back from becoming truly equal. Women in Iran are still to this day trying to prove that the post-revolutionary laws are uncompromising to daily life situations such as education, professions, and family. These setbacks are not only seen in Iran, but also all over the World. Women are faced with certain setbacks that they must overcome. They will keep fighting though. That is one thing that women do not seem to give up on and that is their fight for equality. Whether laws are enforced by the government, society, or family women will continue to fight in the hope that someday they will live in a society that is truly equal.

Chapter 6 Bibliography

Eshghipour, Kourosh. The Islamic Revolution's Impact on the Legal and Social Status of Iranian Women. New England: International & Comparative Law Annual, 1998.

Marshall, Tayana. Iranian Revolution Turned Against Women Who Supported It. Canada: McGill University, 1995.

Sanders, Renfield. Iran: Places and Peoples of the World. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1990.

Visual Geography Series. Iran in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 1988.

Women in Iran and in the View of Islam: The Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in Ottawa. www.salamiran.org/women/NROW/1995/Introduction, 1998.

Section III: Global Inequalities
Chapter 7
"The Politics of Global Inequalities"
By Patrick Vance

In America, people often complain about how a small percentage of the population controls more than half of the nation's wealth. Common complaints are that big companies or large corporations are taking over the small companies and not giving them a chance to enter into a 'free' market. High expenses and small starting capital make for a very difficult road to success in the business world. However, this is America. The only reason people make this a big issue is because it affects them directly. People do not realize that the growing gap between the rich and poor is not only happening in the United States, but instead is a global issue. On a greater level than America, the gap between the developed nations and the underdeveloped nations is increasing at a rate that is becoming increasingly alarming. In order for one to understand the gap adequately though, one must first define and list some common characteristics of both developed and developing nations. Second, one needs to explain why poverty, hunger, malnutrition, gender, and underdevelopment lead to the increasing gap. Lastly, possible solutions to this problem need to be made.
The earth is basically divided into two economical worlds - the rich and the poor. Examples of rich nations include countries such as Japan, Germany, Canada, and the United States while Latin America, countries of Africa, and countries of Asia make up a large part of the poor countries. Rich nations are basically located in the Northern Hemisphere and consequently these countries have obtained the label of simply, "The North." Obviously if the rich countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, the poor countries are located primarily in the south and have earned the label, "The South." The North is a group of countries that seem to have favor in all aspects of life. Their literacy rates are very high, birth and death rates are low, and they have a long life expectancy. This is due to good education and excellent medical care. The only downfall of this luxury life is that the North seems to be a bit overweight due to the excess amount of food available. The South operates in a much different world however. The people of these nations are the recipients of the opposite end of the spectrum. Their literacy rates are low, birth and death rates high, and life expectancy is low. Poverty, hunger, and malnutrition hang over the Southern countries and the inhabitants of these countries are very survival oriented as compared to being consumer oriented like the North. Due to the many difficult conditions faced by the Southern countries, they have a hard time competing with the richer North and have fallen behind.
There has not always been such a gap between the rich and the poor countries. The reason for this is simply that there were no major gaps in the world before World War 2. This gap has recently been established as a consequence of the industrial revolution. Before the great industrial revolution, everyone was poor. Europeans took large amounts of knowledge gained by countries in Africa and Asia and exploited the knowledge to suppress other nations. Instead of using knowledge to help everyone grow, the Europeans took knowledge and used it against nations that they simply stole from. The gap between the rich and the poor has consequently grown from a 2:1 ratio in 1850 to a 30:1 ratio in the present year of 2000. In a mere 150 years, the Southern countries have lost that much ground and unless the North decides to help the South out, the North will be in control for a while because they are playing with a stacked deck of cards.
There have been many theories as to why there is such a gap between the rich and the poor. One possible explanation is climate. The North theoretically has a better climate for working. The South is too hot and therefore the people do not work as hard. Another possible explanation is that the South's religion keeps the people down and from gaining too many luxury items. The lack of natural resources has also been blamed for being a cause to the problem of the increasing gap, but this statement is way off. The North is actually dependent on the South for many natural resources. One other explanation is the way children were raised in either environment. Some even claim that Southern mothers do not know how to raise children. All the previous explanations could have had something to do with it, but the last and most logical explanation for the gap is colonialism. The process of taking over less developed countries and exploiting them for personal gain is probably the most reasonable explanation.
The United States is just as guilty for colonialism as many of the other developed nations. The United States often only helps countries that follow and submit to the authority we try to put them under. For example, the foreign aid of the United States is pocket change compared to what it should be. The United States' total foreign aid is less than the budget for welfare in the city of New York. One third of all the total foreign aid is given to Israel. Israel is a country that does not need foreign aid, but for some reason, the United States gives all its money to them. This is because the purpose of foreign aid is often times not to help those in need, but to give to 'friends.' There are many other examples that support this disappointing truth about the United States. However, we as Americans want to be considered leaders of the world. If we want that title, then we need to take responsibility for the poor and needy around the world and begin to play a fair game.
Poverty, hunger, and malnutrition also play a huge part in the increasing gap between the rich and poor nations. The first peoples were collectors, then hunters, and then farmers of bare existence, and then the farmers began to produce surpluses. The amount of one's surplus determined how wealthy one was and whether or not they would trade. Today, the earth can only support about ten million people with natural food stuffs. However, with farming and new production techniques, we can support the world easily. We have enough food due to irrigation, fertilizers, and internal combustion engines. All these technologies increased the farmers' production capacity and led to great surpluses. Genetic engineering further increased our ability to supply food to the world. One example of a hybrid that has increased production is IR-8 rice, otherwise known as "Miracle Rice." This special rice has more than doubled the yield of regular rice. With the increase in population and wealth, demand for food has also increased. Population is expected to increase the demand for food, but in many rich nations, demand has increased for the wrong reasons. For example, in America, people with money tend to spend large amounts of money on beer, cat food, or just waste the food that is put in front of them. This food could be given to a child in a poor country, but instead is thrown down the drain because we as Americans can afford it. This does not help the world hunger situation at all. Women and children are most affected by the rich nations' greed. In many nations around the world, women are oppressed both at home and at work. In some areas, women are still not allowed to work. Women are not given access to many resources available to men and therefore feel the effects much greater especially if they are not married or have children.
Poor countries realize their dire situation and haven taken steps to try to create a solution. Their intent is very good, but they are having trouble getting the rich countries to cooperate. The rich nations have too much wealth and power to give it up easily. The one thing the poor countries cannot do is to provide monetary assistance to the people of their country because they do not have any programs such as welfare or the like. They did come up with a plan that is entitled 'The New International Economic Order.' This was a plan created to eliminate poverty in 1974 that was presented to the United Nations when there were 77 total nations in the group. The way it worked was that the rich and poor countries would discuss laws and if both rich and poor agree, international law can be changed. This is known as the North/South Dialogue. While this plan looked good on paper, the underdeveloped countries had a quite a time convincing the developed countries to support many of their ideas.
As one can see, the developed countries are playing this world and its people into their own hands. They are running the economic and social system of many countries the way they want it to be run. It will be difficult, if not impossible, for the underdeveloped countries to get ahead in this crude and malicious system of government. The gap between the rich and poor is getting alarmingly large, and will probably not decrease for a long time. The only way for this great gap to decrease or be eliminated is for the rich and developed countries to help out the underdeveloped nations. As of right now, that is not happening!

Chapter 8
"The NIEO Proposals"
By Sara Hahn

The world has a gap between the rich and the poor and to solve this gap the poor compiled a plan. This plan was called the NIEO, which stands for The New International Economic Order. In 1974 a group of 74 members met in the United Nations to discuss the problems (this group today has grown to about 120). The NIEO provides nineteen steps to get rid of the global gap between the rich and the poor. In this paper there will only be a mention of six of the nineteen steps, since these six were found to be the most important of the NIEO proposal.
One of the proposals is that each state is free to determine its own political and economic system. This proposal didn't come off too good. The rich and the poor did not agree on it at all. The rich thought that they needed to decide what was best for the poor and not let the poor have any say about anything.
A second proposal is that each state is free to control its own natural resources. Again the rich thought that they could control the poor and their natural resources. One example of this actually happening is in Chile. People got their copper from there. Allende ran for president in Chile to help the poor gain control over their chief resource, copper. He used a slogan "Chile and copper belong to the people." When he was elected president he passed a law to fulfill this promise but the CIA came and took over Allende by paying him two billion dollars. Then in 1974 there was a coup d'etat (military takeover) in which Allende was killed. After this takeover Pinochet took over and tortured and killed thousands of people.
An example of a country able to control their natural resources is Libya. In 1969 Qaddafi overthrew the king of Libya and became leader. The first thing that Qaddafi did as leader was to get rid of the foreign bases and the second thing that he did was nationalize some industries, such as oil. Although Qaddafi was often mislabeled as the "strong man of Libya," he actually used the money that he had to help people form liberation groups, create rivers to help with food production, and build production mechanisms. Qaddafi thought that the best way for the people of Libya to defend themselves was provide all people between the ages of sixteen and fifty-five with machine guns and training. Everyone in Libya loved Qaddafi and thought he was the greatest.
The third NIEO proposal is to tie the prices of manufactured goods and raw materials. This proposal didn't work very well either. The prices of raw materials always stayed the same and those of manufactured goods always rose. The poor tried to raise the prices of raw materials and they got upset because the prices did not rise. The rich didn't want to tie to the prices of raw materials and manufactured goods together, claiming that a cycle of inflation would doom the world economy.
The fourth proposal of the NIEO is that the poor want international, organizational, and legal reforms. There are 187 countries and of those 132 are colonies of the rich. In this reform there are five permanent members who are the Untied States, United Kingdom, China, France and Russia. All of these countries had the right to veto over anything that any other country said. The poor thought that some of the bigger countries should also be included in this group. A discussion went on amongst the poor and rich through the North/South Dialogue. The United States agreed to let Japan and Germany join.
The legal reform favored the rich so poor countries again thought that the laws should be changed. One success of this NIEO proposal is the international reform. In this reform it was said that there was diplomatic immunity. Diplomatic protects diplomats from the host country's laws. Also, along with this reform, there was major success by proposing the Law of the Sea Treaty. This treaty was proposed by President Carter, although the United States didn't sign it, but the other countries did and that is why it is an international law. This law seemed to be in favor of the rich countries and discriminated against poor countries though. The Law of the Sea Treaty states that the border of the country goes three miles into the ocean. Many countries got mad, especially the poor countries, because they felt that it was hurting the fishing industry so the law changed to extend the territory. The border now was 200 miles into the ocean. After the law changed the rich countries got mad but the poorer countries didn't care that the law had changed because it benefited them.
The new Law of the Sea Treaty stated that the territorial waters could go twelve miles from shore. This new law also stated that the economic zone would be two hundred miles from shore. This meant that any one could travel between the twelve and two hundred miles but the natural resources found there belonged to the country. No one could enter the twelve miles without getting a visa. Beyond the two hundred miles it is called the "Heritage of Mankind" which belongs to all humanity, no license or permission from the country. If a country wants to use this territory for economic use, except fishing, it has to get permission from the High Seas Authority, which is elected by the General Assembly. There are some countries that have no zone and they are called land-locked countries, which are helped out by the High Seas law. This whole law became effective in 1983 and benefited the poor countries.
The fifth proposal by the New International Economic Order is that the poor countries wanted the transfer of science and technology. The poor were upset because they have to pay for the technology that is copyrighted. Some inventions are copyrighted for the use of just the inventor. The poor argued that everyone should be able to use whatever the invention might be and not have to subscribe to the information to use it. The poor wants to follow the "Heritage of Mankind." One example of this is weather satellites. The poor countries used to have to subscribe to a place on the satellite to be able to get the weather; now the weather is seen globally.
The last proposal of the NIEO is that the poor countries would like multilateral aid. Most current foreign aid is done bilaterally which means from one country to another. The poor countries feel that this is wrong. They think that international agencies should administer foreign aid. Moreover, poor countries believe that an international authority should also determine who should get the foreign aid based on projects and merit. It was decided that each country would give one percent of its gross domestic product. So far the rich countries do not like the idea of giving money to the needy countries.
The NIEO (The New International Economic Order) is a complicated plan that takes a lot of explaining. There are six proposals that were mentioned out of the eighteen total proposals. I elaborated on each of the proposals throughout the paper. The whole purpose of The New International Economic Order is to eliminate the gap between the rich and the poor. There is still a gap between the rich and the poor today just like there has always been. The gap won't ever be eliminated; the gap will only continue to grow as time goes on. The NIEO was just one attempt to eliminate this gap but like all other tries it has not gotten rid of the gap.

Chapter 9
"Rapid Urbanization and the Politics of the Urban Poor"
By Elizabeth Acker

In many third world countries, people have begun to pack up their few belongings and migrate from the countryside to the cities. They have given up hope of improving their lives in the countryside and now they seek new opportunities and better living opportunities in the cities. Many Third World countries have grown tremendously in population because of the migration of these people and from growth within the country.
The massive number of people shifting from their rural homes to the urban atmosphere produces numerous problems. Some of these problems include challenges for the management of housing, sanitation, education, transportation, and pollution.
There are exceptional cases of people that migrate to the city that find low-income jobs and quickly improve. However, most cases are not like this. Many people are unable to find jobs in the "formal" urban economy, (jobs such as factory work) and therefore seek jobs in the "informal" economy. This informal economy provides jobs in garbage recycling, shoe shining, street vending, and mechanics.
There are two areas of economic policy that influence job creation: Industrialization Strategy and Containment of Inflation. In some countries, the industrialization strategy to create jobs was to manufacture products locally instead of importing them. Other countries decided to subject their manufacturers to international competition while stressing export items. Both strategies had some success. The other problem, inflation, has two major components that lead to the Other World's lack of jobs. They are out-of-control inflation and stagnant growth. To fix these problems, leaders tried to lessen government spending, lower the value of currency, and privatize state enterprises. There was also over employment in government positions. These adjustments have led to an increase in employment in the informal economy and a decrease in living standards.
Meanwhile, many people are forced to live in shantytowns and slums because housing cannot keep up with the drastic increase in population. The shantytowns are occupant-built homes and they make up most of third world cities. Sanitation problems are rampant in these areas. There is no clean water available so they get water from the sewers. The apartments and houses that are built by private companies are aimed more towards the middle class, which leaves the poor urban, working class without housing.
Governments throughout the developing world have constructed public housing to try and help with the shortage of adequate housing. However, public housing projects did not provide sufficient shelter and often made the situation for the poor worse. The shantytowns were often demolished because they were unsightly, but the residents of the shantytowns could not reside in the newly constructed houses because they were full. The houses were also often far from the places of employment. Any houses that were for sale or rent were often too expensive.
The most effective solution to the shortages of housing has proven to be spontaneous housing, also know as self-help shelters. These self-help shelters make up the shantytowns that many cities view as unsightly. Spontaneous housing can consist of a few homes or a community of houses. These houses are effective because they serve the poor. The people living there can upgrade as the means become available and they can rent out to other poor people. Since they are user built, the houses provide for the individual needs of each family. These little settlement areas have churches, bars and neighborhood stores that help to create a sense of community.
In addition "Sites-and-Services Programs," whereby the state sells or rents parts of land with basic services like water, sewage, electricity, etc., allow the poor to build their own homes. The advantages of this system are that: 1. the government can steer user-built homes to locations that are safer and more environmentally sound; 2. they have electricity, sanitation, and other needs; 3. The lots are more affordable than the fully built state housing units. Some disadvantages include: 1. some lots are still too expensive for many; 2. these plots of land are often far from job sites; 3. these places tend to attract more "talented" poor people, leaving the slums with no leadership.
The initial fear of the slums was that they would be a great place to breed unrest among the people living there and may even cause revolutions. In a few exceptional instances, there have been rioting over food prices and bus fares, but overall these occurrences have been rare. In fact, many urban poor have found they like their living conditions better than their former rural living conditions. These urban poor often lack class-consciousness, economic and political organization, and long-term aspirations. Therefore many are not into politics. However, in some cities, given the chance and with the hope of attaining some benefits, the lower classes within the community have seized the opportunity to participate in politics.
Forms of Political Expression Among the Urban Poor: It has been observed that the urban poor, although not very active politically, have been more politically active than their rural counterparts.
For most slum and shantytown dwellers, the opportunities for individual political activity are not common, so voting has little meaning to them. Instead, they engage in clientelism. This is where political parties will give public resources as favors in exchange for votes or forms of popular support. Among the urban poor, groups can be persuaded to participate in the political system with the lure of immediate, if limited, gains.
Moreover, some of the shantytown settlements have come about due to organized invasions of unoccupied land. Although these land invasions were illegal, governments allowed them to continue. The reason governments overlooked the invasions is because it enabled the poor to build their own homes with little cost to the government and the land was mostly public and had low value. By allowing this, a political leader could get future votes from these people.
Although most of the world's urban poor have favored moderate forms of political expression, there have been exceptions. There are a few instances where they have played important roles in revolutionary upheavals. The poor have been shown to support radical political parties under certain circumstances. The circumstances are that parties must have a realistic chance of winning and have a possibility of delivering benefits to the supporters. The slum dwellers are, overall, even less likely to embrace urban guerrillas or revolutionary movements.
Since populations in the Other World will be even greater in the future than they are now, governments will have a hard time providing sufficient jobs, housing, sanitation, and social services for the urban poor. However, in the long run governments may be able to cope with these problems by sustaining economic growth.

Chapter 10
"The Cuban Embargo"
By Morgan Chastain Pytynia-Klein

As learned in this class, the developed world can have great influence over the fate of other world countries leading to a detrimental impact on the people of the third world. A blatant example of a negative impact is the embargo placed on Cuba by the United States. For the past century, many difficulties have existed between the United States and Cuba in regard to Cuba's independence. Nevertheless, the United States would allow Cuba's independence (or rather, lack of) with certain restrictions involving the U.S. However, the relationship between the two countries deteriorated after Fidel Castro took office in 1959. Because of the United States' anticommunist view, the country felt it was necessary to initiate a Cuban embargo. The goal of the embargo was to overthrow the Castro regime by using the Cuban people as leverage. Nonetheless, Castro has used and will continue to use the embargo to his advantage by placing blame on the U.S. for Cuba's economic problems. Not only is the Cuban embargo a detriment to the Cuban people, but it violates international trade laws, and has negative consequences for Americans, too. Therefore, the Cuban embargo should be lifted for three specific reasons: First, lifting sanctions on Cuba is necessary for bringing about a peaceful transition to democracy. Second, the embargo includes a medical provision that prevents the Cuban people from attaining needed medical supplies. This lack of aid has also caused many Cuban people to die from starvation and malnutrition, and finally, the Helms-Burton act violates international trade laws and must be repealed. The goals of the Cuban embargo have drastically failed. The intentions of the embargo were to compress the Cuban economy in order to make the already poor population even poorer. The theory is that the embargo will lead to an overthrow of the Castro regime by hopeless Cubans that are most affected by the embargo. These sanctions have failed and will continue to fail; therefore, the embargo must be lifted immediately for the purposes of the aforementioned reasons.
Cuba's history did not begin when Fidel Castro took over the government in 1959. For the past century Cuba has attempted to prove to the United States and the rest of the world that it can survive without assistance. Between 1868 and 1898, Cuba fought for its independence against a very determined Spain. During the Wars of Independence, the United States was very much interested in Cuba because of the sugar lands it contained, and the U.S. offered to buy it from Spain. Consequently, the U.S. entered the war when the Spanish sunk the U.S.S. Maine and defeated Spain. Because of this, the United States inherited Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam, and Cuba. Between 1898 and 1902 the U.S. provided an American Protectorate or a military government over Cuba. The U.S. decided to give Cuba its freedom only if the Platt Amendment was installed in the constitution, which gave the United States the power to intervene when necessary. Furthermore, Cuba could not sign any treaties or lease military bases, and Cuba needed approval for borrowing money from any other country.
With the United States being the largest investor in Cuba, the survival of the Cuban economy became dependent upon the United States. "By 1913 United States investments were estimated to be $220 million-17.7 percent of all U.S. investments in Latin America" (Masud-Piloto, 13). However, between 1902 and 1933, Cuba experienced many corrupt governments. Therefore, the United States created the Good Neighbor Policy in which Cuba had to respect the rights of other neighboring countries. Soon after, Fulgencio Batista became president of Cuba; however, he was one of the most corrupt dictators to ever hold power in Latin America. He managed to steal millions of dollars from the Cuban people. He then was exiled from Cuba when Fidel Castro came into power in January 1959. Many people were pleased when Castro took over because it symbolized a new era. According to Felix Masud-Piloto:
Most important to the majority of Cubans, Castro represented the hope of a new beginning. During the insurrection the rebel leader had promised far reaching social, economic, and political reforms, and his people anxiously awaited those changes (19).

Although, he wanted better relations with the U.S., Castro wanted complete control of Cuba. Nevertheless, the relationship between Cuba and the United States began to disintegrate, which forced Cuba to look elsewhere for support. As a result, Cuba and the Soviet Union began to rely on each other for resources. Sugar became a Cuban resource that the Soviet Union was dependent upon. This action angered the United States, since it viewed it as a communist threat. Therefore, the U.S. began decreasing its ties with Cuba by not buying the usual amount of sugar or other resources, which hurt the Cuban economy. Castro nationalized all American industries located in Cuba and the Soviet Union became Cuba's primary trading partner. The United States felt that it was forced to enact a Cuban embargo, in which it cut all ties such as buying, selling and trading with Cuba until further notice.
Lifting the sanctions placed on Cuba by the United States is necessary for bringing about peaceful democratic change in Cuba. Legitimate opposition of the Castro regime is growing in Cuba. "Indeed, although harassed and frequently jailed, the regime's political opponents are now becoming braver-even audacious-in pressing for a more open, democratic political system" (Gonzalez 96). The Cuban people are ready and willing for democratic change, but it is just a matter of the United States helping to facilitate that change. The Helms-Burton Act "restricts diplomacy with a transition government…[and]…it restricts Washington's ability to facilitate peaceful change in Cuba" (Clissod 97).
The embargo is accomplishing the opposite of what it intended to do. Instead of turning the Cuban people against Castro, Castro has been able to use the embargo as a means to turn the Cuban people against the United States. Castro uses his propaganda to indoctrinate the Cuban people into thinking that all of Cuba's economic problems are the result of the United States. This has had a deleterious effect on instilling democracy in Cuba. To buttress the fact the Helms-Burton Act has failed, many believe that it is foolish to think that Castro would relinquish his power over Cuba. For all the years that the sanctions have been in place they have not ridden Cuba of Castro's control. The Helms-Burton Act has done more harm than good as explained in the following:
Moreover, Helms-Burton does not further U.S. goals in Cuba. To insist on Fidel Castro's ouster is to create the conditions for civil war; no rational policymaker can expect Castro to resign peacefully and go into exile. If pushed, he would fight, and many Cubans, perhaps a majority, would fight with him. We would thus see massive bloodshed and tens of thousands of refugees on Florida's beaches (Smith 97).

Lifting the embargo is crucial to instilling democracy in Cuba, and constructive engagement with Cuba would be the strongest weapon. Trade embargoes are counterproductive, and the severe results of the sanctions placed on Cuba have failed to change Castro's regime.
The United States has a moral imperative to lift sanctions placed on Cuba for the purpose of facilitating humanitarian aid to the people that are in dire need of help. Because of the embargo, Cuba is one of the only countries in the world that is denied medicine. The sanctions that the United States has on Cuba have severely increased nutritional deficiency causing people to die because Cuba cannot obtain the necessary food, medicine, and medical supplies needed for its people. The public health of the island suffers at the hands of the United States because of the embargo.
…The embargo prohibits products that contain any U.S. component or material from being exported to Cuba from third countries, including products based on U.S. design and technology, and because most major new drugs are developed by U.S. pharmaceutical companies, Cuba has access to only a small percentage of the new medicines available on the world market (Schwab 99).

Unfortunately, women and children are the most severely affected by the embargo. Mammography units are unavailable to Cuban women because of the American x-ray film that is used. Chemotherapy treatments are unavailable, and many other supplies and ingredients that are life saving are also embargoed. Because the necessary materials for several water chlorination plants are lacking the plants have been shut down. This has led to a high increase in the incidences of typhoid fever, parasitism, various diarrheal diseases, as well as many other viruses.
Due to the lack of necessities for females, women are forced to prostitute themselves for money. This prostitution is even supported by the Cuban government through its tourist brochures. Because the economic situation is so bad for the people in Cuba, women must sell their bodies for a terribly low price. This leads to more problems with the spread of diseases, which again cannot be controlled because of the inadequate health care in Cuba. This leaves the United States responsible for hunger, malnutrition, and thousands of deaths caused by the sanctions. The only logical answer to this problem is to restore humanitarian aid to Cuba because people are dying for no apparent reason. The United States' policy toward Cuba is flawed and has proved to be futile.
Not only is the Cuban embargo immoral, but it is also illegal. The embargo violates international trade laws. The European Union and many of the 132 member countries of the World Trade Organization have opposed the United States' policy toward Cuba because it violates many World Trade Organization covenants. "The Helms-Burton Act violates open trade rules by extending U.S. jurisdictional reach outside its national territory" (Cooper 98). It does so by not allowing any country to export any product to Cuba that has had any part or piece made by the United States. This even includes the export bans on the concepts or ideas behind any goods or services that originate in the United States. Canada and Mexico argue that the embargo also violates the North American Free Trade Agreement. It is one thing to prohibit trade with Cuba, but to impose the same restrictions on third countries is outrageous.
Not only does the embargo violate international laws, but some also argue that it violates the United States' Constitution. The Constitution's Fifth Amendment is violated by section 102 of the Helms-Burton Act. The act has several violations such as: an American citizen's right to freedom of travel, the separation of powers within the system of government, and takes away the authority of the president in dealing with foreign affairs. This act forces the president to depend on the acquiescence of congress in respect to Cuba. The act also allows former Cubans (that are presently U.S. citizens) the defense of the courts before they became American citizens. In other words, the act allows Cuban Americans to use the courts for things that happened before the people became Americans. This privilege is not given to other foreign born citizens (Roy 97).
In conclusion, the United States must immediately remove economic sanctions on Cuba. The disastrous effects terribly outweigh any benefit that may have ever existed. However, it is doubtful that there ever have been any benefits to this crime against the Cuban people. The Cuban people are suffering unnecessarily in order for the United States to prove a point. The embargo has accomplished nothing, and it will continue to fail. The disadvantages of the sanctions are horrendous, unethical, and immoral. Therefore, it is the duty of the United States to stop this heinous crime against the Cuban people.

Chapter 10 Bibliography

Clissod, Gillian Gunn. Toward a New Cuba?: Legacies of a Revolution. Caribbean Project, 1997.

Cooper, James A. "Creative Problem Solving and the Castro Conundrum." California Western International Law Journal. California, 1998.

Gonzalez, Edward. Cuba: Clearing Perilous Waters? Rand Policy Analyst, 1996.

Masud-Piloto, Felix. With Open Arms: Cuban Migration to the United States.
New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998.

Roy, Joaquin. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. Miami, 1997.

Schwab, Peter. Cuba: Confronting the Embargo. New York, 1999.

Smith, Ayne. "NACLA Report on the Americas." Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1997.

Section IV: Agents of Change
Chapter 11
"Exploring the Means of Progress in Non-Western Countries"

In the 1800's, the United States of America found itself split in two: there were those who favored growth and development socially and there were those who grasped on to tradition, afraid of what change might bring. This era including the American Civil War brought about such progress that today, Americans cannot comprehend the conditions in the countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. Although one would think Americans would be sensitive to the changes and needs of these countries, they seem to find it difficult to comprehend non-European culture.
The countries in these areas no longer have a traditional society; one in which the majority of the population live in rural areas, lack modern mobility, have high birth and death rates, and, among other characteristics, lack medical/technological advantages. But, they have not become a completely modern society in which most of the population lives in urban-industrial areas, experience low birth/death rates, and are highly mobile. These countries are on a path from having a traditional to modern society. Along that path, these countries may experience four types of change driven by the military, leaders, ideologies, and bureaucracy.
The most prevalent and powerful agent of change is the forceful takeover of government by military groups, or a coup d'etat. Because military organization is most representative of how society exists (it has a sampling of the population), it easily supplies countries with social views to follow. Military groups are most capable of creating change because there already exists a coherent, organized infrastructure that appointed leaders could easily follow. The changes that occurred in Egypt in the mid-Twentieth century show how a coup d'etat worked. Egypt was a British protectorate. (In all reality it was a colony, but that would make England look bad. So, they allowed Egypt to have their own leader while the British controlled their resources, military, etc.). Until the 1950's, when Nasser and Sadat organized the "Free Officers" group, Egypt still employed a feudal system (yep! That same system that was abolished in Europe in the 1500's, but still seemed okay for Egyptians in the 1900's). 2% of the population owned 75% of the land; the majority of the people were serfs that lived and worked as part of the land. Because Britain had real control of Egypt, the "king," King Farouk cared more about gambling than politics. Therefore, in 1952, Nasser and Sadat (with their military group supporting them) had papers drawn that the king signed stating that he leave Egypt with what wealth he had and that he never return. They chose Mohammed Naguib to be the Prime Minister of Egypt because he was part of the feudal class (and that would not cause such an uproar with the elite Egyptians.) This revolution was, for the most part bloodless, but did include battles leading to the killing or arrest of old leaders. The people in countries like Egypt experience these changes and regard them as normal because government structure was never a solid, dependable concept.
Another almost expected type of change is the rise and reign of leaders or elites. Because non-Western countries do not have a stable, long running government, many of these countries' policies are those of the leader in power. Leaders of change, like Nasser, do not gain power by being appointed, or by being elected, but by their personality. The greatest leaders in these in these countries are charismatic. They have energy, vitality, and a deep passion for achieving their goals. People admire them as if they were gods on earth, listening to their every word and following their every step. Nasser is a great example of a charismatic leader. In October 1953, Nasser spoke to a crowd in Alexandria, Egypt when four shots rang out -- someone had attempted to assassinate Nasser. Everyone ducked, but in the silence that followed as on-lookers raised their heads, they saw Nasser still standing. He proclaimed, "I live for Egypt, I die for Egypt." There was an uproar in the crowd and Nasser finished his speech off-the-cuff for another four hours. Soon, almost all of Egypt stood behind Nasser as he put Naguib under house arrest because he would not resign his control. Charismatic leader Nasser had once again changed Egyptian government: he worked hard to break down the feudal system and to end British control.
Yet another agent of change is the role that ideology plays in the formation of a government. These ideologies are the political beliefs and value system of the nation. Known as Third World Socialism, these ideologies include the rejection of communism and capitalism, control of natural resources, existence of private property, and government controlled public services. Non-Western countries reject communism because government controls the people who work hard but get no more than their needs. Why should the people work harder than their neighbor if both will have the same living status? These countries reject capitalism because it is viewed as an unfair system that allows the few rich and powerful to exploit the poor who do all the work. Third world socialism allows for people to work toward gaining more, which is justice in these countries. Another aspect of their ideology is the use and control of natural resources. Natural resources should belong to the nation, not one individual or corporation. Someone may own a piece of land, but the natural resources of that land belong to the government. It is an almost sacred
ideology that private property exists within a nation. Owners could pass the property onto their kin, and no monopolies would exist because the land could be sold freely. Third World Socialists feel that government has the responsibility to protect the consumer from monopolies and consumer abuse. They also believe that the government should control public services because they have a tendency to place emphasis on service rather than profit. Health care, education, transportation, and utilities are all public services that should, according to Third World socialists, be controlled by the government. This is a clearly different view from U.S. standards. They feel that one's health should never be dependent on one's wealth, and should be free and provided by the government. Education is free (even higher education) with the stipulation that the student will work for the society. As education serves the individual, it should also serve society. These concepts, though they may seem outlandish to Americans, are valued highly in non-Western countries and are a basis for change there.
Finally, the existing bureaucracy in non-Western countries may bring on changes in their politics. These government employees-civil servants-to bring dreams (ideals) to reality. Most non-Western countries are old -- ancient, in fact. New systems of government are run so that the bureaucrats work for the people, where as in the old cultures, government employees worked for the ruler. They were admired because they had a steady job that represented the king. It is difficult to get away from such an old, established concept. The problem is that the revolutions occurring in these countries bring new organization to the existing old structure. Most of these countries were departmentalized by European colonies that, of course, put Europeans in charge. When the country gained independence, the management left and the lower level employees then had to take control. For example, in 1955 Morocco had 51,000 civil servants. After they became independent from France, only 18,000 remained to do more work and learn new tasks. There was a lot of pressure, and failure loomed with their inefficiency and waste. Problems are present in the behavior of the new bureaucracies. Not only do the new bureaucrats have to run the existing country, but they also have to create a new modern system. A bureaucrat often fears change because if innovations fail, he may lose his job. Another reason for reluctance in supporting change is corruption. Nepotism is the most prevalent form of corruption, along with bribery. Yet another problem persists with bureaucracies of non-Western countries: political intervention. Politicians often put too much strain on the people of the country to help bring about changes when, most of the time, they simply cannot do anything. Also, many government jobs are given to the unemployed who are unskilled. These problems in the government system not only hinder change, but also bring change about.
Change is happening. In the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Latin America, countries that were once considered underdeveloped are now on the road to becoming modernized, with the help of military revolutions, charismatic leaders, and existing ideologies and bureaucracies.

Chapter 12
"The Bureaucracy"
By Jamie Bagnall

If bureaucracies continue to develop in the same controlling manner, what does the future hold for developing societies? Bureaucracy is a complicated term with many definitions, but it can be best understood after reading the details of the historical record of both ancient and modern societies, the interaction of bureaucratic organization with the public, and the problems with international relations. After understanding the general background and history, the bureaucracy becomes much more than just a complicated social group trying to reach bureaucratic aims. Instead we find that the bureaucracy is a special form of social organization that provides the guidelines for political action through the delegation of authority (Seitz, 1978; 4).
The historical review of both ancient and modern societies shows how the early bureaucracies began as simple human organizations and grew into a complex web of social problems and blessings. Ancient societies, like the Siriono Indians of Bolivia and the Comanche Indians of early North America, had leaders that excelled in the same skills as are found in contemporary bureaucracies. For example, outstanding hunters might be likely candidates for leadership. The leaders did not have much influence, and the organization of these societies relied mostly on the economic duties and conflict negotiations imposed by kinship (Seitz, 1978; 5).
Then came intermediate bureaucratic states such as the ancient Egyptian Kingdom, the Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire, the Sung dynasty of China, and Medieval Christendom. Those bureaucracies controlled practically all land, water, and food in the society. The Roman Empire was the largest political system to emerge before the rise of the nation-states in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
After the peace of Westphalia developed the advanced bureaucratic states which were generally characterized by the "total secularization of politics" (Smith, 1970). Some obvious examples would be the United States, Britain, France, Germany, and the former Soviet Union. Within these bureaucracies existed some basic characteristics that are well known. In the present, one of these characteristics is that they can enforce commands with persuasive authority. Another is that their government is run through a complicated system of special authorization. Third is that they separate the connection between kinship and politics, and lastly that they exercise worldly political power (Seitz, 1978). These characteristics show how the advanced bureaucracy has a lot of power over the people.
By looking at historic and modern bureaucracies, we have seen the types of social conditions and some of their characteristics. In each stage of development, bureaucracies have been found to organize people's behavior when they struggled against nature, to organize people's behavior in managing social conflict, and governing affairs.
Looking at the function of the bureaucracy's organization and the effects on the public may give us a better idea of how to maintain our control as citizens. There has been a lot said about the major impact of bureaucracy on civilization. People have put their lives in the hands of the controllers and have accepted the rules (Jansen, 1978). The government will give the people what they ask for because the bureaucracy is supposedly derived from the public's desire for order. The bureaucracy does not want to stay where it is though. They are reluctant to be outdone in the race to satisfy the people's desire for structure.
Bureaucracies help people solve basic problems of social organization. According to Seitz (1978), there were five major changes that occurred in human social organization as a result of the bureaucracy. It started about 15,000 years ago when people established permanent settlements. From there, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, people began to create an agricultural system through planting and domesticated herds. About 4,500 years ago, large cities emerged, overflowing with complicated economic institutions, major public works, trade relations, and an abundance of agricultural goods. Bureaucratic organizations began to emerge for the sole purpose of serving the needs of growing industry. Then at about 3,000 years ago, the models of modern bureaucratic organization were brought into existence. Lastly, when the Industrial Revolution began, the demand for bureaucratic organization increased greatly.
There are many different functions that the bureaucracies are in charge of. One important duty in a democracy is to make sure that citizens are informed. This calls for statistics. Statistics are necessary in the management of government programs (Jansen, 1978). An important statistic calculated by the government is the rate of unemployment. It is used to measure the amount of aid given to the unemployed in a certain area. If emphasis were not put on statistics, the economy of the state would crumble leaving the people with nothing. Therefore, statistics serve a major function in a bureaucracy.
Bureaucracies help people coordinate human behavior to secure survival against the forces of nature. Bureaucracy and technology are successful, sometimes too successful. With technological advances, made possible through the reasonable shaping of social action, people have damaged the ecosystem. Even though this system seems to be full proof, the damage that is done to our society is the direct result of people's decision making. Bureaucracies have provided processes through which these decisions are refined and completed. Even though bureaucracies made pollution possible, that does not mean that they caused people to pursue destructive options (Seitz, 1978). Therefore, bureaucracies help our society stay organized, and make it so we do not live in a world of complete chaos.
All societies require organization among their ranks. Organization requires that communications among people be expected and the functional interdependencies among people in complex societies be maintained. Bureaucracies help maintain predictability in human interactions through the criminal law. They also help maintain the level of social integration required in complex societies by civil law and civil procedures for controlling disturbances that occur in public. We see that in order to manage the social relations in complex societies, bureaucratic organizations have established criminal law, civil law, and control of civil disorder.
Bureaucratic organization has also had a direct impact on international relations in addition to its impact on the demand for natural resources, growing economic crisis, and the military-technology complex (Seitz, 1978). Two issues are particularly pertinent: the growth of multinational corporations and transnational organizations and changes in the conduct of warfare among nation-states. Both developments require advanced bureaucratic organizations and very advanced technology. The important impacts that the bureaucratic organizations and their advanced technologies have had on international relations shows another function they have in global society.
There are so many types of bureaucracies that have been established throughout the world, and they all seem to be a little different in style. Many people think that the bureaucracies are going to take complete control of the people, but control is what keeps our societies under control. I would like to conclude and tell you my opinion about the frequently asked question, "What does the future hold for developing societies?" There are so many people that are worried about this question, but in my opinion everything will turn out fine. The bureaucracies are not going to take control over its people unless it is absolutely necessary, and it will only be absolutely necessary if people continue to make poor decision-making. As long as we continue to voice our opinions and vote on what we want, then the relationship between the bureaucracy and its people will be extraordinary.
The bureaucracy is very powerful and we have seen how it has changed from the beginning, intermediate, and then finally to the advanced stages. There are also many functions that the bureaucracy takes much pride in serving. Some of these include statistics, civil disputes, and many more. One of the most important jobs of the bureaucracy is to make sure that the relations among nations are satisfactory. Even after the bureaucracy makes sure all those things are going alright, they will never stop working until their society is absolutely problem free.

Chapter 12 Bibliography

Jansen, Robert B. the ABC's of BUREAUCRACY. Chicago: Nelson Hall, Inc., 1978.
Seitz, Steven T. Bureaucracy, policy, and the public. Saint Louis: The C. V. Mosby Co.,
1978.
Smith, D. Religion and Political development. Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1970.

Chapter 13
"Third World Socialism"
By Jennifer Kindred

Poverty, hunger, unfair distribution of wealth, depravation, these are all terms that describe the desperate predicament of the people of the Third World. The ideology or belief system of Third World socialism rejects both capitalism and communism. Therefore the theories of Third World socialism are a balance between the two extreme systems of government. The defining question for hundreds of years has been how much government should participate in the economics of a country. Third World socialism ideology attempts to combine command and laissez faire economy. The characteristics of Third World socialism include the beliefs that natural resources belong to the nation; that private property is encouraged but the government does not tolerate monopolies; and that public services should be owned and run by the government.
Third World socialism has been practiced all around the globe with Nasserism in Egypt, African socialism, Arab Socialism, and Peronism in Argentina. Each one of these sects has been lead by charismatic leaders. These people gain power through one of the agents of change discussed in former lectures. According to Dr. Nassar, charismatic leaders are seen as a God like figure by their people and prevent a civil war because the people unite behind the leader. General Nasser of Egypt is the example used in Dr. Nassar's lectures. This charismatic leader enforced the ideologies of Third World socialism by implementing the Land Reform Act of 1953, ending feudalism and giving ownership of land back to the people. Furthermore, General Nasser also nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956. Egypt may have never have broken the bondage of feudalism without a leader with such strong ideologies. General Nasser's popularity with the people was immense and therefore his policies were easily passed through the governing bodies of Egypt.
Now that we have looked at the development of Third World socialism in Egypt through a charismatic leadership let's look at the defining characteristics of Third World socialism. First natural resources belong to the nation. The belief is that natural resources of a country belong to all the people of the country and that the profit from these natural resources should go to benefit all of the people of the country. This rationalization is a key point in Third World socialism. The revenue from these natural resources such as oil, ore, copper, and other viable resources are used to build schools, high ways, hospitals, utilities, and other services provided by the government to the people. This ideology prevents one person or family from becoming wealthy off of resources that are found by coincidence on their land. The government will properly compensate the landowners and then excavate the natural resources. In conclusion, this characteristic shares the wealth of the country with the people of the country, enabling the nation to succeed and modernize their societies.
The second characteristic of Third World socialism is the encouragement of private property but the outlaw of monopolies. The right to own private property is one important, if not defining, characteristic of capitalism. The belief that man's right to own property is in essence his right to happiness. In the case of the rural population, an individual's right to own his or her own land provides incentives to optimize crop yields. Incentives behind private property enable a factory owner to produce as efficiently as possible in order to make as much profit as possible. However, Third World socialism forbids monopolies. Third World socialism posits that monopolies stifle competition and reduce efficiency. Monopolies take away the rural farmers ability to compete with large plantations and decrease the businessman's ability to compete with big corporations. In summary, Third World socialism supports and encourages private property rights and condemns monopolies.
Thirdly, public services should be owned and run by the government. These services include education, health care, and banking. The ideology is that education is free to individuals and that the education received should benefit society. This is achieved through the five-year plans throughout most Third world countries. Thus, an individual country would examine the need for certain professions society needs. Subsequently, the government administers aptitude tests that will determine citizens' eligibility for those professions. Unfortunately this system denies the individual's right to choose his or her own future career. The idea that a person should never profit from another's illness is what supports the ideology that health care should be free and accessible to everyone, regardless of economic class. Third World socialism advocates a government run health care system and that the money from taxes and natural resources finance that system. The government also controls banking. This eliminates private companies from going bankrupt; however, multi-national corporations demand private banks. Therefore a country will have both privatized and nationalized banks. The government also provides utilities to all citizens. These utilities include electricity, gas, and running water. They are paid for by taxpayer money with the belief that no child should be without heat or electricity.
The ideologies of Third World socialism are remarkable in theory; however, in practice they very rarely bring forth the positive outcomes that the charismatic leaders want. This is in part because of the inefficient bureaucracies of these Third World countries. A bureaucracy is an institute of government that carries out decisions; development of a society cannot be achieved without a competent bureaucracy. Often times we complain about the inefficiency of our own bureaucracy but at least projects are started and completed in this country. In the countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America the bureaucracies do not work for several reasons. One, the culture is old in these countries; the concept of a bureaucracy began in Asia and Africa. Nevertheless, the old bureaucratic system served the king not the people. In old bureaucracies the civil servants or bureaucrats represented authority and power, the work was stable, and the people admired the bureaucrat. In modern societies, the bureaucrats serve the people and the power is divided into departments. During colonialism, Europeans were the administrators of these departments and the native population did the hard labor. When the Europeans left they also took their knowledgeable bureaucrats, leaving the country with uneducated workers. These people are unable to carry out orders and this leads to inefficiency and waste. The ideology of Third World socialism demands a strong bureaucracy to carry out all of the progressive programs.
Second, bureaucracies become incredibly corrupt in Third World countries because of the bureaucrats' need to stay in power; they fear change and losing their jobs. This furthers the inefficiency of these bureaucracies. Since the bureaucrats already in office fear the loss of their jobs with change, they try to make sure that change does not occur. They do this through nepotism or favoring family members. Subsequently, Third World socialism ideology requires change in order to modernize society. Thirdly, if a bureaucracy finally stabilizes and the bureaucrats become competent in their work, political intervention often times disrupts the bureaucracy. In the Third World, there are constant political changes such as coups d'etat. When leadership changes, the new leaders demand immense amounts of work on the bureaucracy; this places further pressure on an already vulnerable system. Finally, in Third World socialism there are no programs for the unemployed because in theory everyone is working. However, in practice, there will always be some sort of unemployment. These people go to work for the bureaucracy and it becomes a dumping ground for the unemployed. The bureaucracy becomes bloated with too many people and not enough work. The morals and incentives of the workers who are doing their job decreases and the bureaucracy becomes even more inefficient. In short, Third World socialism has failed because of the failure of the bureaucracy.
In this essay, I have explored the ideology of Third World socialism and the failure of Third World socialism. In theory, the charismatic leaders of Third World countries have great ambitions for the progression of their country. Unfortunately the inefficiencies of the bureaucracy, which is imperative for the workings of a society, fail to accomplish the programs set forth by the leaders. In conclusion, the Third World is plagued with numerous social and economic problems. The solutions to these problems are still being debated while people of Third World continue to suffer the hardships of living in poverty.

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